Pain Management and Assessment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Pain Management and Assessment - Essay Example Also, a brief idea of how the cost of elderly career affects the realm of healthcare is mentioned to give credence to the fact that incurred costs often play a role in the type of treatment that the elderly patients receive and in what they receive in the assessment and management of their pain. Also, there are concerns about the social psychological and environmental needs of the elderly as well. All of these pertinent issues are discussed so that a better enlightenment can be illustrated in what exactly caring for the elderly patient entails in a nursing practice, specifically within a medically facilitated environment. The conclusion demonstrates that despite the fact that care of the elderly can be more complex and costly they are entitled to the same rights as any other patient and deserve to have effective and appropriate pain management given to them to provide them with the best quality care and comfort level possible. This is the goal of any nurse in the medical field in regards to any and all patients which the finality of this literature defines. Pain is something that is experienced by every human being regardless of their age, gender, or economic status. The theory in behind pain is more than one; in fact there are three theorizations to provide a medical definition of pain. However, pain is normally described as an unfavorable experience that creates an extensive emotional and disabling influence on an individual, especially within the elderly population. The three theories of pain are the Specificity theory, Pattern theory, and Gate theory (Adams & Bromley 1998). It is the Gate Theory that is commonly used in medical terminology to discuss the pain levels of the elderly. This is because this theory focuses on many past experiences that older people have had while receiving medical care and of which dictates how they will perceive their ability to tolerate pain during their treatment. For instance, it is

Conflict Resolution Essay Example for Free

Conflict Resolution Essay Merriam-Webster (n.d) defines conflict as, â€Å"the opposition of persons or forces that gives rise to the dramatic action in a drama or fiction†. Interpersonal conflicts, whether they are between family members, students and teachers, employees and supervisors, or groups, have certain elements in common. Coser (1967) asserts that conflict is a struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power, and resources, in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure, or eliminate the rivals. (p. 8) Coser’s definition grew out of the cold war, when conflict between the United States and the former U. S.S.R. dominated Western method to conflict. Conflict was viewed as a win-lose solution. According to Dana (2001) there are only three ways to resolve any conflict; power contests, rights contests, and interest’s reconciliation. Power contest is based on Coser’s (1967) win-lose situation. Each party views their point as right each wanting power over the other. Rights contest is an orderly system which has rules, regulations, policies, precedents and a hierarchy of authority which is used in order to â€Å"win† again this model is a win-lose resolution. The solution to conflict resolution is interest reconciliation. This approach enlists support from both parties to find the best solution. All parties win with interest reconciliation model as their solution. Conflict in the workplace is a condition between or among two or more workers whose jobs are independent, who feel angry, who perceive the other(s) as being at fault, and act in a way that causes a business problem. Conflict has three elements feelings (emotions), perceptions (thoughts) and actions (behaviors). â€Å"Psychologists consider these three the only dimensions of human experience. So, conflict is rooted in all parts of the human nature† (Dana, 2001, p. 5) some confuse conflict with indecisi on, disagreement, stress, or some other common experience that may cause or be caused by a conflict. However, those elements are not best handled by conflict resolution. The question many ask, is conflict normal? Conflict is a fact of any organizational life. On the job, conflict is a stubborn fact of organizational life (Kolb and Putnam, 1992, p. 311). Rather than seeing conflict as abnormal, Pondy (1992) suggests we view organizations as arenas for staging conflicts, and managers as both fight promoters who organize bouts and as referees who regulate them (p. 259). In addition, Pondy states that in the company, agency, or small business, conflict may be the very essence of what the organization is about, and if conflict isnt happening then the organization has no reason for being (p. 259). One study surveyed workers and found that almost 85 percent reported conflicts at work (Volkema and Bergmann 1989). With an increasing awareness of cultural diversity and gender equity issues, it is essential that employees become familiar with issues surrounding promotions and harassment. In fact, one can see training in organizations as a form of preventive con flict management (Hathaway, 1995). The recognition of the frequency of conflict at work has led to books on mediating conflict in the workplace (Yarbrough and Wilmot 1995), showing how managers can learn conflict management skills to intervene in disputes in their organization. As employees, daily work with clients, customers, co-workers, or bosses can be a struggle. Conflict is as Wilmot (1995) wrote, What determines the course of a relationship . . . is in a large measure determined by how successfully the participants move through conflict episodes (p. 95). Conflict resolution has five styles, giving in, avoiding, fight it out, comprise, and work together style. No style is right or wrong; however some do work better than others. Accommodation, giving in to the others wishes or smoothing waves sacrifices ones own goals for the sake of the other person. Accommodators often use phrases like: Whatever you want is fine with me. When one party in a conflict genuinely does not care about the outcome of the conflict, accommodation may be the right choice for that situation. However, if accommodation is the only style a person utilizes, he or she is advised to learn more skills. Avoidance is characterized by behaviors that either ignore or refuse to engage in the conflict. While avoidance is by some consider a negative style that shows low concern for both ones own and the other partys interests, there are sometimes strategic reasons to avoid conflict. For example, when the relationship is short-term and the issue is not important or when the situation has a potential to escalate to violence, avoidance may be the prudent choice. Fight it out, competition, or win/lose, style maximizes reaching ones own goals or getting the problem solved at the cost of the others goals or feelings. While always choosing competition has negative repercussion s for relationships, businesses and cultures, it can occasionally be the right style to choose if the other party is firmly fixed in a competitive style or there are limited resources. While competitive strategy is not necessarily dysfunctional, competition can easily slip into a destructive situation. Understanding the methods and strategies of others who use competitive styles can assist conflict managers in neutralizing the negative consequences of competition and work toward a mutual gain approach. Compromise is a give and take of resources. The classic compromise in negotiating is to split the difference between two positions. While there is no victor from compromise, each person also fails to achieve her or his original goal. Finally, working together to collaborate is when parties cooperatively team up until a mutually agreeable solution is found. Compromise and collaboration are win-win solution where as the other styles are win-lose. Why do people avoid dealing with conflict? People have a natural instinct of fear and some let that fear overpower them. The fear of harm causes people to fight-or-flight. Individuals will choose the flight option when in a dangerous part of a city that they have never been in before in order to avoid danger, it shows wisdom or strength to get out a of physically abusive relationship, commendable to stay out emotionally abusive relationships. In spite of this, in some cases people have the response to flight to a false perception of harm. People overstress in their minds the emotional harm that someone can cause harm. The same is said for conflict in the workplace, people will avoid conflict for fear of being harmed by others. Some avoid conflict because of a fear of rejection from others. These individuals feel others will withdraw their friendship or push them away causing more hurt. People have the perception if they do not risk rejection they can suppress their needs and feelings. Loss of relationship is the fear of rejection taken up a level they fear totally losing a relationship. Others avoid conflict to mask their true desires because preserving a relationship is more important than getting what they want. These individuals are trapped into believing their worth is dependant on another accepting them. People avoid conflict for fear of anger. These people do not like listening to someone who is angry. They believe another will hurt them, reject them, or leave them, and they just cannot stand to witness anger. However, anger is just anger and it is not necessarily directed toward them. Individuals do not want to be seen as selfish. In some situations people are not afraid of others reactions, but rather their interpretation of the situation. They fear that they will appear selfish. However, is it wrong to have a need, feeling, or want and to express it? Society has sometimes had it seem that way. Although, there is nothing wrong with asking for what individuals want versus feeling they are entitled to always getting what they want. The truth is if one never asks, then they are depriving people around them from being able give to them effectively. Still, people who feel their wants should not be fulfilled, regardless of what others want, fall into the selfishness category. Sometimes people avoid conflict for fear of saying the wrong thing or something they will regret. Individuals will avoid conflict rather than risk putting â€Å"their foot in their mouth† they contain their anger and frustration which often leads to that which they fear. When people have conflicts in the past that have failed so they avoid future conflict for the fear of failing those too and begin to believe the confrontation is not worth the emotional energy it takes to deal with others. The fear of failing can impact other aspects of ones life. The fear of hurting another is more than just saying the wrong thing. These individuals are extremely sensitive and caring. They would rather hurt themselves than risk hurting another. The fear of success is a fear that most over look. However, it is much like the fear of failure. Some people are afraid to get what they want; they believe they will never get it. These people feel they do not deserve what they want, the consequences of getting of what they want is regret, or the responsibility is more than they need or desire. The fear of intimacy is the most subconscious of the fears. People do not want to share their dreams, desires, and wants with others. They feel they are private and do not want to be exposed. People do not want to appear weak. If resolution involves giving in, avoiding, or compromise they may feel they appear as though they do not have confidence. People do not want the stress of confrontation. They feel it is better to avoid conflict rather than deal with the stress it will cause them in the workplace between co-workers. Our society tends to reward alternative responses to conflict, rather than negotiation. People, who aggressively pursue their needs, competing rather than collaborating, are often satisfied by others who prefer to accommodate. Managers and leaders are often rewarded for their aggressive, controlling approaches to problems, rather than taking a more compassionate approach to issues that may seem less decisive to the public or their staffs. Conflict resolution requires profound courage on the part of all parties: It takes courage to honestly and clearly express one’s needs, and it takes coura ge to sit down and listen to one’s adversaries. It takes courage to look at one’s own role in the dispute, and it takes courage to approach others with a sense of empathy, openness and respect for their perspective. Collaborative approaches to conflict management require individuals to engage in the moment of dialogue in thoughtful and meaningful ways, so it is understandable if people tend to avoid such situations until the balance of wisdom tips in favor of negotiation. People have certain perceptions in conflict when dealing with different situations. Culture shapes and frames each individuals interpretation of appropriate behaviors during conflicts. Conflict across cultures, whether across nations or across the diverse cultures within a country, exacerbates the routine difficulties of conflict management (Fry and Bjorkqvist, 1997). There is no clear conclusion about whether men and women actually behave in different ways while conducting conflicts. However, gender stereotypes do affect conflict behaviors when individual s act and react based on stereotypes of how men and women will/should act rather than selecting behaviors appropriate for the individual one is communicating with (Borisoff and Victor, 1997). Parties respond to conflicts on the basis of the knowledge they have about the issue at hand. This includes situation-specific knowledge and general knowledge. The understanding of the knowledge they have can influence the persons willingness to engage in efforts to manage the conflict, either reinforcing confidence to deal with the dilemma or undermining ones willingness to flexibly consider alternatives. The person sharing the message is considered to be the messenger. If the messenger is perceived to be a threat (powerful, scary, unknown, etc.) the message can influence others responses to the overall situation being experienced. For example, if a big scary-looking guy is yelling at people they may respond differently than if a diminutive, calm person would express the same message. Additionally, if the people knew the messenger previously, they might respond differently based upon that prior sense of the person’s credibility. People are more inclined to listen with respect to someone they view more credible than if the message comes from someone who lacks credibility and integrity. Some people have had significant life experiences that continue to influence their perceptions of current situations. These experiences may have left them fearful, lacking trust, and reluctant to take risks. On the other hand, previous experiences may have left them confident, willing to take chances and experience the unknown. Either way, one must acknowledge the role of previous experiences as elements of their perceptual filter in the current dilemma. These factors, along with others, work together to form the perceptual filters through which people experience conflict. As a result, their reactions to the threat and dilemma posed by conflict should be anticipated to include varying understandings of the situation. This also means that they can anticipate that in many conflicts there will be significant misunderstanding of each others perceptions, needs and feelings. These challenges contribute to our emerging sense, during conflict, that the situation is overwhelming and unsolvable. As such, they become critical sources of potential understanding, insight and possibility. How do people respond to conflict? There are three responses to conflict emotional, cognitive and physical responses that are important windows into our experience during conflict, for they frequently tell people more about what is the true source of threat that is perceived; by understanding the thoughts, feelings and behavior to conflict, a better insight into the best potential solution to the situation. Emotional (feelings) are the feelings we experience in conflict, ranging from anger and fear to despair and confusion. Emotional responses are often misunderstood, as people tend to believe that others feel the same as they do. Thus, differing emotional responses are confusing and, at times, threatening. Cognitive (thinking) are our ideas and thoughts about a conflict, often present as inner voices or internal observers in the midst of a situation. Through sub-vocalization (self-talk), people understand these cognitive responses. Physical (behavior) can play an important role in our ability to meet our needs in the conflict. They include heightened stress, bodily tension, increased perspiration, tunnel vision, shallow or accelerated breathing, nausea, and rapid heartbeat. These responses are similar to those we experience in high-anxiety situations, and they may be managed through stress management techniques. Establishing a calmer environment in which emotions can be managed is more likely if the physical response is addressed effectively. Dealing with someone unwilling to negotiate can be difficult for the person who is trying to resolve the conflict. However, the 8 Step Model can be very beneficial, by focusing first on listening to the other person, and seeking to understand the sources of their resistance, the stage can be set for clarifying the conditions he or she requires in order to talk things out. This is not about being right or wrong in the situation, but a practical strategy for getting the other person engaged as a partner in the negotiation process. Another alternative is to focus on things we can do to influence conflicts in the future, rather than putting initial energy into understanding (or solving) problems we have had in the past. By remaining relatively flexible about the agenda taking on topics individuals care about, but not necessarily the most pressing issues – thus, creating an opportunity to reduce the fears associated with resistance. While the conflict may not be able to be truly resolved, some key issues that exist will be managed and will help to prevent the issues from getting worse. Power is an important and complex issue facing anyone seeking a negotiated solution to a conflict. Before negotiating clarify the true sources of power in the room: The boss has position power, associated with the carrots and sticks that come with the role. She or he may also have coercive power, supported by contracts or statute that compels employees to behave in certain ways and do certain tasks associated with the job. Some may have a great deal of expertise power, accumulated from doing your job over a period of time. Either conflict participants may possess normative power, through which they know the lay of the land in their department and, therefore, how to get things done. And either may possess referent power, through which others show respect for the manner in which the employee conducts themselves. Generally, referent power accrues to those who demonstrate a mature willingness to seek collaborative solutions. An impasse is the sense of being stuck. Impasse is the point within a dispute in which the parties are unable to perceive effective solutions. People feel stuck, frustrated, angry, and disillusioned. Therefore, they might either dig their heels in deeper, anchoring themselves in extreme and rigid poitions, or they might decide to withdraw from negotiation. Either way, impasse represents a turning point in our efforts to negotiate a solution to the conflict. As such, rather than avoiding or dreading it, impasse should be viewed with calmness, patience, and respect. Multi-party disputes are complex situations, and they require careful attention and persistence. However, the same 8 Step Model can be applied to the disputes. In spite of using the same process expect everything to take a bit longer than if there where only two or three people. Patiently make sure that all points of view are heard, that issues are clarified for all to see, and that all members in the group accept the agreements being negotiated. If there are limits to the groups decision-making power, then it is important to acknowledge those limits and understand how they are perceived by all members of the group. There are many different ideas of the steps for resolution, some claim five steps while others claim six or seven for the purpose of this paper Weeks (1992) eight step resolution style is identified. Step one – Create an Effective Atmosphere Creating the right atmosphere in which the conflict resolution process will take place is very important, yet most overlook its importance. The atmosphere is the frame around the canvas which will be painted the negotiations and building of better relationships (Weeks, 1992). Step two – Clarify Perceptions Perceptions are lenses through which a person sees themselves, others, their relationships, and the situations they encounter. Perceptions have a great influence on behavior of people. Once people perceive something in certain way, even if the perception is wrong, in the mind it is that way, and often base behaviors on that perception (Weeks, 1992). Step three – Focus on the Individual and Shared Needs This step builds on the previous step as needs as the conditions people perceive they cannot do without, those conditions critical to each persons wellbeing and relationships. However, step three focuses more on skills involved in the conflict partnership approach. There are several key points to keep in mind in this step. 1) Needs are the foundation of relationship and are an essential part of that foundation. 2) People sometimes confuse needs with desires. 3) Personal needs in relationships perceived by individuals must allow for respect of the needs or the relationship (Weeks, 1992). Step four – Build Shared Power Power is a part of every relationship. However, the way people perceive and use power is seen frequently as a dirty word. Such as when people use power as means to control or to manipulate some else to get what they want. Although, power is and of itself not corrupt, it is the way in which people use their power and whether they allow such power to corrupt. Developing positive self power through a clear self-image means that we base our perceptions of ourselves not on what others expect of us or want us to be but what we believe to be our own needs, capabilities, priorities and goals (Weeks, 1992, p. 152). Step five – Look to the Future, Then Learn from the Past. All relationships and conflicts have a past, present and future. Resolving conflicts requires dealing with all three. The conflict partnership process encourages the use of positive power to focus on the present-future to learn from the past. The past experiences people face set the landscape for present and future decision making and how relate to others (Weeks, 1992). Step six – Generate Options People have the ability to discover new possibilities in their relationships as well as conflict resolution. However, both are often impaired by the packaged truths and limited vision people hold onto in times of stress, insecurity, and conflict. Generating options breaks through the predetermined restrictions brought into the conflict resolution process. Generating options imparts choices which specific steps to resolve conflicts and enhanced relationship can be agreed upon (Weeks, 1992). Step seven – Develop â€Å"Doables†: the Stepping-stones to Action Doables are the necessary stepping-stones taken along the way to resolve conflict. Doables are explicit acts that stand a good possibility of success, meet some individual and shared need, and depend on positive power, usually shared power to be carried out. Working on and accomplishing some doables can help the conflict partners see more clearly where they need to go. Many conflict partners have changed their preconceived definitions of both the conflict itself and the expected outcome due to the lessons learned and clarified perceptions through working with doables (Weeks, 1992) Step eight – Make Mutual-Benefit Agreements Mutual-benefit agreements are the next step on the pathway to conflict resolution. Conflict resolution agreements must be realistic and effective enough to survive and the potential to develop further as challenges arise in the future. Mutual-benefit agreements replace the need or want for demands, see the others needs, shared goals, and establish a standard wherein power is identified as positive mutual action through which differences can be dealt with constructively (Weeks, 1992). Conclusion Conflict is an unavoidable aspect of everyday life whether it is with family, teachers, students, friends, or an organization. The best approach to resolving conflict is interest reconciliation. It joins both parties of the dispute to find the best solution. In so doing, all parties win. People respond to conflict in three ways emotional (feelings), cognitive (thinking), and physical (behavior). All are important to the conflict experience. They allow a better awareness to best furnish a solution to the situation. An important tactic to conflict resolution is to develop persuasion skills with the ability to clearly explain one’s point of view and to argue for their conclusions and convictions. Week’s Eight-Step Process is a valuable tool in helping people to become more strategic about resolving conflict. References Borisoff, D., and D. A. Victor., (1997). Conflict management: A communication skills approach, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Conflict, (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conflict Coser, L. A. 1967. Continuities in the study of social conflict. New York: Free Press. Dana, D. (2001). Conflict resolution. New York: Mcgraw-Hill. Fry, D. P., and Bjorkqvist K., (1997). Cultural variation in conflict resolution. Mahwah, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Hathaway, W., (1995). A new way of viewing dispute resolution training. Mediation Quarterly, 13(1), 37-45. doi:10.1002/crq.3900130105 Kolb, D. M., Putnam, L. L. (1992). The Multiple Faces of Conflict in Organizations. Journal of Organizational Behavior, (3), 311. doi:10.2307/2488478 Pondy, L. R. (1992). Reflections on organizational conflict. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13(3), 257-261. Volkema, R. J., and Bergmann T. J., (1989). Interpersonal conflict at work: an analysis of behavioral responses. Human Relations 42: 757-770. Weeks, D. (1992). The eight essential steps to conflict resolution: preserving relationships at work, at home, and in the community. Los Angeles, J.P. Tarcher; New York: Distributed by St. Martins Press Wilmot, W. W. (1995). Relational communication. New York: McGraw-Hill. Yarbrough, E., and Wilmot W., (1995). Artful mediation: Constructive conflict at work. Boulder, Colo.: Cairns Publishing.

Complaints Against the Northwestern University Students :: Northwestern University Students

Rowdy Drunken College Students I read an article about Northwestern University students in Evanston, Illinois, and the community’s complaints against them. The article, written by Bob Seidenberg, discusses the need for city council to call a meeting to address the problems of rowdy drunken college students disturbing the peace and quiet of the evenings, by wandering around and through Evanston homes late at night. The underling issue is, is this Northwestern’s problem, or simply a lack of respect from youths today? The drunken rowdy college students have always, and will always be around. However, the Evanston community has progressively seen the situation get worse. The college students are beginning to buy houses next door to families with young children, which, potentially causes a problem. While there are no laws forbidding NU students living off campus, people in these areas are becoming upset with the result of the students living in next door. When you have students whose primary focus, beginning on a Thursday night, is to become completely â€Å"plastered†; living next door to the middle school child trying to sleep, problems arise. The parents of these children are sick of the students behavior, and are voicing their complaints. Jane Evans was quoted saying, â€Å"These students are supposed to be the cream of the crop, but we would assert, and many of our neighbors would agree, that these students feel grossly entitled to run wild in our streets without any respect for the community in which they live.† (pg. 18) This quote is more than true. I have spent many nights at my friend’s house, and the next morning there will be empty beer cups all over the yard, and most of the night we were kept up by yelling and laughing college students running up and down the streets; she lives in the thick of the college student off campus housing. The only problem is, whose fault is it? Northwestern University has on campus housing; however, the University is completely engulfed within the community. Living off campus is one of the benefits of going to NU, because the community and environment around the campus is extremely college oriented. When you have an environment that is so conducive to the typical college student, obviously they are going to treat the surrounding territory as their territory. So then the issue really becomes, whose fault is it? Who is to blame for the noise complaints and the rude, rowdy behavior?

Civilize Them With A Stick

1) Study Guide Questions for Test #1To Prepare for Test #1, I recommend that you write down your responses to the following questions. You do not have to turn this assignment in for credit. If you are unclear about the answers after reading the chapters, contact me. If you'd like me to look over your answers before your test, email them to me. This assignment is designed to help you prepare for the test. You will only be tested on material that relates to the study guide questions: Chapter 1 Study Guide Questions:1. Define and describe sociology. 2. Describe the sociological imagination and apply the sociological imagination to one aspect of your own life. 3. Define and distinguish the macro and micro levels of social life. 4. Describe and distinguish the functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist theoretical perspectives. Explain how each perspective would attempt to understand a college degree. Obedience Video Study Guide Questions:1. Describe Milgram’s experiment, his research findings, and your own reaction to the video. 2. Discuss ways in which the findings of the Milgram experiment relate to things that occur in the real world. 3. In what way did proximity to the subject affect obedience? In what way did proximity to the authority figure influence obedience? How did groups influence obedience? (hint: variations are shown at the end of the video) 4. What are the independent variable(s) and dependent variable(s) in the study (Chapter 2 of the textbook defines these terms). 5. What was the operational definition of obedience (Chapter 2 defines this term) Chapter 2 Study Guide Questions:1. Define objectivity and explain why it is important2. Describe the 6 steps of the scientific method and be prepared to assess whether or not the scientific method has been followed in an exam question that provides your with a research study to assess.3. Define operational definition. Be prepared to identify and assess the validity of an operational definiti on in an exam question that provides you with  information about a research study.4. Define and distinguish independent, dependent, and control variables. Be prepared to identify and distinguish independent and dependent variables in an exam question that provides you with information about a research study.5. Explain the difference between correlation and a causal relationship between variables.6. Define and distinguish validity and reliability.7. Define sample and explain the importance of a random sample. Be prepared to identify sampling issues and discuss the importance of a random sample in an exam question that provides you with information about a research study.8. Briefly describe and be prepared to identify the following research methods: survey, experiment, field research and secondary data analysis.9. Distinguish mean, median and mode. Explain why the median income in the U.S. is a better measure of the â€Å"middle value† than the mean (hint: consider the impact of incomes such as that of OprahWinfrey, Warren Buffett and Bill Gates on an average).Chapter 3 Study Guide Questions:1. Define culture. 2. Define and distinguish material and non-material culture. 3. Define and distinguish norms and values. 4. Describe the types of norms (mores and folkways). Provide one example of the different types of norms that relate to your own life. 5. Define sanctions. Provide one example of sanctions that have influenced your own behavior 6. Define and distinguish ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. Explain how the article, â€Å"Civilize Them With a Stick† Relates to ethnocentrism. 7. Define and distinguish subculture and counterculture. 8. Define culture shock.

Economic Crisis and a Shift to the Right Essay

In 1867, after battling invaders for nearly a millennium, Hungary became an autonomous state within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This expansive empire had its northern border in present day Poland, its southern border in present day Serbia, and was bordered on the east and west by the Black and Mediterranean Seas, respectively. The empire was eventually defeated in World War I and through the Treaty of Trianon in 1920 the monarchy was disbanded, and after a period of turmoil, an independent kingdom was established under the authoritarian rule of Admiral Miklos Horthy. Due to the terms of the treaty and the redrawing of many European borders, Hungary’s size was reduced by two-thirds, leaving more than 5 million native Hungarians outside of the country’s borders. These effects remain a sensitive issue for many today and still complicate relations between Hungary and its neighbors. In the events that led to World War II, Hungary joined forces with Nazi Germany by joining the Anti-Comintern Pact and withdrawing from the League of Nations. These measures were taken in an effort to regain its lost territory from the World War I aftermath. At the start of World War II, Hungary remained neutral, however with pressure from Germany, Hungary entered the war in 1941 by invading both Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. After several early battle losses, Hungary began secretly negotiating with the Allies. Hearing of these negotiations, Germany invaded Hungary and installed a puppet government. This new government began eliminating the Hungarian Jewish and Roma populations until Soviet forces in Budapest drove it out in 1945. In the wake of these events, the capital and much of the country was left in ruins. The Soviet Era (1945-1989) After World War II, Communists held power in Hungary with the support of the Soviet Union. A new land reform bill was passed that redistributed land from large estate owners to peasants. Additionally, during this time, industries became nationalized and collective agriculture was instituted. Hungary joined the Warsaw Pact aligning itself with the Soviet Union. The Hungarian population, however, was dissatisfied with this government, and in an effort to appease the people, the government instituted reforms such as withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact and becoming a neutral power. These concessions on the part of the government allowed the Hungarians to realize their power and they demanded further reform and removal of Soviet domination. As a result, Hungarians revolted against the Soviet domination of Hungary. Although the Soviet Army defeated the Hungarians, killing more than 2,500 citizens and forcing more than 200,000 to flee, a new government was instituted. This government, led by Janos Kadar, was still Soviet-friendly, but recognized the need for reform and began to become gradually more liberalized through the 1960’s. The Path to the European Union (1989-2006) In 1989, Hungary was the first country to breach the â€Å"Iron Curtain†. Soon thereafter, Hungary transitioned from Communism to a multiparty parliamentary democracy that welcomed foreign investment. Initially, the result was a dramatic decline in economic activity and living standards. However, within four years of the collapse of communism, nearly half of the country’s economic enterprises had been transferred to the private sector, and by 1998 Hungary was attracting nearly half of all foreign direct investment in Central Europe. In 1994, as a backlash to its rapid liberalization, Hungarians voted the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP) into power. The MSZP was a center-left party and the unofficial successor of the Communists. This government supported and funded social programs while also continuing with economic reform by selling off government owned enterprises and implementing targeted austerity measures. Soon, the country’s newfound growth and stability allowed it to receive an invitation to join NATO. Despite its solid economic performance, the MSZP was affected by allegations of corruption, which led to its defeat in 1998 by a Fidesz led coalition who selected Viktor Orban as prime minister. Orban’s government created centralized control and refused to meet with opposite party leaders for months. They then adopted the â€Å"Status Law†, an effort to reach out to the displaced Hungarian natives. The â€Å"Status Law† offered native Hungarians living in neighboring countries benefits such as health, education, and employment rights in Hungary. Despite Western criticism of his policies, Fidesz did choose to continue the MSZP’s policy of satisfying the Copenhagen criteria to enter the European Union. In 2002, an MSZP coalition regained government control after Fidesz’s administration became the subject of scandals. The new Prime Minister, Ferenc Gyurscany, was able to complete the process and formally join the EU along with nine other states in 2004. After joining, Hungary began to pursue the more difficult challenge of joining the Eurozone by completing the Maastricht criteria. The Hungarian government predicted that this task could be completed by the end of the decade. Hungary’s Entrance to the Eurozone ; Failed Attempts to Join Eurozone In the late eighties, Hungary made progressive steps to position themselves for entry into the European Union. Hungary was the first country to breach the forty-year â€Å"Iron Curtain† surrounding the Eastern European countries. The â€Å"Iron Curtain† was the political, military, ideological barrier created by the Soviet Union after World War II to separate eastern and central Communist European allies from the Western noncommunist countries. In 1989, Hungary peacefully replaced their communist political party with a multi-party parliamentary democracy. As reported by the New York Times, a sweeping majority of Hungarian Communist Party voted for the radical transformation of legislation. The main motivation for the shift was due to a stagnant economy and oppressed religion under communist rule. A need for reform and free open trade with Western countries aided the Hungarian Communist Party in their decision. Before making the final vote, Hungary already began permitting the assembly and association of the non-communist parties. In 1991 Hungary completely withdrew from the Warsaw Pact, appointing the country’s first Parliament President elect. The political restructuring was aided by a shift to a free market-based economy. Liberal economic policies and ideals such as foreign investment, asset management, entrepreneurship and integrating Hungary into the world economy were adopted by the new rule. A shift from an authoritarian economic science to a democratic capitalist system was projected to be a fairly smooth process. However, despite high hopes of a prosperous economy there was a dramatic decline of economic activity and living standards. High interest and inflation rates, unemployment amounting to 12%, and the conspicuous consumption of the new elite of entrepreneurs elicited widespread dissatisfaction among Hungarians. Some economists argue that the idea of capitalism in combination with the new practice of democracy will fail if introduced simultaneously. This is what occurred in 1991 as the ambitious measures of the new parliamentary party began to fail. Life became very difficult for many Hungarians as they struggled during the severe recession exacerbated by the fiscal austerity necessary to reduce inflation and stimulate investment. After rising backlash caused by the poor state of the economy, Hungarians voted into power the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP) overthrowing the conservative Hungarian Democratic Forum. The MSZP was the center-left unofficial successor of the communist party. Since the MSZP was founded on traditional communist ideals, the MSZP gained majority support based on the belief that â€Å"things were better in the old days† when there were more jobs and economic security. The MSZP supported popular social programs while still progressively pursuing reform, selling state owned enterprises and implementing targeted austerity measures. For about 4 years, the reign of the MSZP was successful as there was a surge of stability and growth. Hungary also received an invitation to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization during this time. Despite the success of the MSZP’s role in Hungary’s four-year economic stimulation, corruption plagued the party. In 1998, the MSZP lost control as the Fidesz-led coalition gained majority vote. In 1998 negotiations for Hungary’s entrance into the EU also began. Viktor Orban, the prime minister, was criticized after the implementation of controversial laws such as the â€Å"Status Law†. This law granted health, education and employment rights to native Hungarians residing in other countries. This law violated principles of the European Union. This was a horrible direction to take if Hungary had motives of joining the EU. Corruption scandals and bribery surrounding Orban’s government proved to be detrimental just as they had been for the MSZP in 1998. There was a flip flop in parties as the MSZP regained control in 2002. Picking up where Fidesz and the party left off in 1998, Prime Minister Gyurcsany implemented the final required reforms and joined the 15 country EU in 2004 along with Cyrus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia. After this success, Hungary began pursuing the strict requirements for membership into the euro zone, also known as the Maastricht criteria. The criteria outlined the terms regarding inflation, public debt and the public deficit, exchange rate stability and the convergence of interest rates. The MSZP had high hopes that the terms of these criteria would be reached by the end of the decade. As exhibited by similar events in Hungary’s past, the ambitious attempts didn’t quite live up to expectations. The MSZP maintained control in the election of 2006. Before this election there was a ballooning budget deficit of over 9% of GDP. This issue was overlooked, while the party promised more spending and lower taxes. In 2006, as more controversy unraveled, Prime Minister Gyurcsany admitted that his party had lied about the economic condition of the country for two years. While protests plagued the country, Gyurcsany introduced austerity measures, which included tax increases and spending cuts to trim the budget deficit to 3. 2% of GDP. According to the Maastricht Treaty, the government deficit could not exceed 3% of annual GDP. Citizens revolted and the electorate denounced the new fees, causing a major defeat for Gyurcsany’s austerity measures. A global credit crisis overshadowed Hungary’s economy in 2008 and 2009 and the efforts to meet the Maastricht criteria for the Eurozone failed. Fixed vs. Floating: What Should Hungary Have Done with the Forint Hungary lost all hopes of reaching the Eurozone as the 2008-2009 financial crisis descended upon economies. Due to falling consumer spending, Hungary suffered a trade collapse and there was a loss of confidence in forint-denominated assets among investors. In February 2008, Hungary chose to float the forint after facing substantial pressure for devaluation. By midyear, the forint began a steep depreciation, which had the effect of making Hungarian exports more attractive. This had the potential to raise Hungary’s GDP, as an increase in net exports, all other things remaining equal, will raise GDP according to the equation in Chapter 5 of the textbook Y=C+I+G+NX, where NX=NX (? ). This was not the case, however, as from 2008 to 2009, Hungary saw a 6. 7% decrease in GDP. Other aspects of the economy were at work simultaneously which led to the decrease in GDP. The depreciation of the forint also meant that Hungarian households with foreign denominated currencies saw their payments increase dramatically in terms of the domestic currency. As many Hungarians had taken on loans in foreign currencies, specifically the Swiss franc, due to low interest rates, this proved a problem for several households. These loans were of little risk when the forint was pegged to the euro, however with the currency’s recent decline, many of these loans faced default. In October 2008, Hungary’s central bank raised interest rates to 11. 5%, a 3% increase. This was an effort to equilibrate saving and investment. According to the text, increases in the interest rate serve to increase the supply of loanable funds and decrease their demand. Because Chapter 5 states that an increase in investment demand leads to a trade deficit, we can see that the Hungarian government is trying to increase its net exports to combat the financial crisis. The switch to floating the forint was intended to free Hungary to pursue economic policy independent of the Eurozone, however fears of a Hungarian default on sovereign debt forced their government to request international financial assistance. Hungary received $25. 1 billion from the IMF, World Bank, and EU, making it the first nation to receive a bailout led by the IMF. This bailout came with promises to implement austerity measures to reduce public sector pay, increase some taxes, and decrease spending on social programs. By the first quarter of 2009, Hungary saw a decrease in GDP, an increase in unemployment, and the forint became Europe’s worst performing currency. During the financial crisis, four of the eight EU countries located in Central and Eastern Europe chose to float their currencies, and only Hungary was seeing such financial and political complications. The other countries that did not float their currencies took a different strategy and defended their pre-crisis exchange rates with the Euro during the global recession. In order to remain competitive, they slashed their deficits and curbed inflation. These countries, however, were some of the worst performing in 2009. In the decision as to whether or not Hungary should have chosen to float their currency or remain pegged to the euro, it is important to compare the features of each option. A country may choose to follow hard exchange rate pegs, soft exchange rate pegs, or floating currency. Hard exchange rate pegs usually lead to sound fiscal and structural policies and low inflation. They tend to be longstanding, allowing for certainty when pricing transactions. Downsides include that the central bank has no independent monetary policy because it cannot adjust exchange rates and interest rates are tied to those of the anchor country. Another option is soft exchange rate pegs. With soft pegs, countries maintain a stable value against an anchor currency/currencies, which can be pegged within a narrow ( ±1%) or wide ( ± 30%) range. Soft pegs remain a nominal anchor to settle inflation expectations and they allow for limited monetary policy to deal with shocks. Soft pegs are vulnerable, however, to financial crises, which can lead to large devaluations and even abandonment of the peg. The third option is floating exchange rate. This rate is mainly determined by the market and central banks intervene mostly through purchases or sales of foreign currencies in exchange for local currency in order to limit short-term rate fluctuations. Depending upon the country, the central bank may be particularly involved, or not involved at all. An advantage of floating regimes is that countries have the advantage of maintaining an independent monetary policy. Measures however must be taken to ensure success. First, the foreign exchange and financial markets must be able to absorb shocks without large exchange rate changes. Also, instruments must be available to hedge risks posed by the floating exchange rate. Hungary should not have remained pegged to the Euro during the 2008-2009 financial crisis. Had Hungary remained pegged, it would have likely faced worse fates than it saw during this time period. Since the other countries who remained pegged found themselves among the worst performing nations in the region, Hungary would have likely found itself in a similar situation to Latvia who even found their IMF bailout insufficient. Since none of these nations fared well, it would have been an unwise decision for the forint to remain pegged to the Euro. In contrast, the others that decided to float their currencies during this time had mixed effects. Poland actually saw a 1. 7% increase in GDP from 2008-2009, while Romania’s GDP dropped 7.1% during the same time period. Since there was some success achieved by floating currencies during this crisis, it could be concluded that there was a difference in monetary policy that could account for the success or failure of these economies. Hungary’s decision to float the forint was a wise one, however the execution of the policies surrounding this decision should have been modified. The advantage of full control of monetary poli cy was an advantage to floating currency, although it could also be a disadvantage if the policies do not promote thecurrency’s success. Hungary should have implemented some austerity measures and set up policies to try to cushion some of the inevitable blow that would be brought on by the financial crisis and the new currency in the market. If those things had been done, Hungary may have seen less of a decline during this period and may have even prospered as Poland did. Exchange Rate of Hungarian Forint vs. USD, Euro and Swiss Franc Based off of the graphs you will be able to see what the forint was worth compared to the dollar, euro and Swiss franc. Looking at the first graph, forint and dollar comparison, the forint currency was worth around 200 to 240 dollars. The biggest difference in the currency was between 2008 and 2009, which is when they decided to float the forint. Looking at the second graph, forint and euro comparison, the forint currency was worth around 260 euros until they floated. After 2009 the value of the forint decreased making their value around 300 euros. Looking at third graph, forint and Swiss francs comparison, the forint currency was worth around 180 Swiss francs until they floated. Then in 2009 the forint value decreased making their value compared to Swiss francs around 200 to 240. Hungary decided to peg the euro and Swiss francs for different reasons. They decided to peg the euro because they ultimately wanted to adopt the euro and show some relative stability in their currency. They had a target date but it was abandoned due to their debt, high budget deficit and inflation. Hungary pegged the Swiss francs because nearly 80 percent Hungarians had foreign currency loans and 55 percent of mortgages in Swiss francs. These loans had low interest and presented little risk to borrowers. The unopposed legislation of Fidesz and Orban and its economic impact The Fidesz and Orban parliamentary election in 2010 caused some controversy with other countries but continued to unite the Hungarian nation. One of the first actions that occurred was passing a bill for dual citizenship for Hungarians living abroad to offset the negative effects of Trianon Treaty. Neighboring countries, such as Slovakia, Romania and Slovenia were frustrated with this bill, but Hungarians were very supportive because many thought the treaty was unfair. Another feud was with the IMF. Orban promised to fulfill their campaign promise and stand his ground on the loan repayment. He felt that Hungary didn’t need to repay these loans because these decisions were due to the previous MSZP-led government. International investors reacted negatively to his actions, but domestic reactions were more positive. Fidesz sought out meeting EU deficit goals through raising new taxes on the banking, telecom, energy, retains, and pharmaceutical sectors. Hungarian populations supported Fidesz while multinationals continued to lose profit. In late 2010, the government made another change to support its fiscal situation by bringing private pension assets under state control. This upset private pension fund industries and The National Confederation of Hungarian Trade Unions but increased the trust in the government from Hungarian population. They believed that the assets from pensions would help balance the budget. Lastly, the Hungarian government decided to take over the country’s rate setting Monetary Policy Council by amending a law that gave parliament the right to nominate all four external members. Despite the changes that Fidesz and Orban made, Hungary was still strong in investments. Some advantages were in fact foreign direct investments, which totaled more than $2. 5 billion. They also have been able to the meet the demands of EU since becoming a member in 2004, showing their political stability. The location of Hungary has attracted many firms by being able to connect Western Europe to other Eastern European countries. Hungary also continued to interest major multinational companies by having strong human capital. Outsiders, other foreign countries, and credit rating agencies may not have agreed with the decisions of the parliament, but it had no effect on their growth as a nation. Hungary continued their reform and growth. Is it wise to invest in Hungary? There are factors that the case touches on which suggest that Hungary is not the safest investment; however, from looking at Hungary in its totality it is undeniable that Hungary should be a European market to invest in. Location Examining Hungary’s location and its relative proximity to its neighboring European countries, helps justify why investors would want to consider investing in the country. Hungary is situated in the heart of Europe bordering seven countries with one of Europe’s largest waterways, the Danube, running through Budapest. This favorable location coupled with the major land routes and waterways that span across Hungary make the country an optimal place for manufacturing, trade, services, and logistics. This prime location, accessible within a few hours of all European countries, makes Hungary an ideal launch point for investors who plan to develop their growing businesses while capitalizing on key European markets. The central European country is known for their excellent infrastructure, their prime business parks and industrial sites. Considered a landlocked port city, Hungary is key in connecting Western and Eastern Europe. Stability and the EU As a long-standing member of the European Union, one of the major factors that also lends to the possibility of Hungary being a safe investment, is Hungary’s relative political stability. It is considered the most developed of the Eastern European countries and its highly developed infrastructure along with its stable government makes Hungary even more appealing. Hungary offers access to a market of over 250 million people within its borders as well as a European Union common market exceeding a half of a billion people. Di Tella, Weinzierl and Kuipers aptly highlight Hungary’s stability, by pointing out that since emerging from communism in 1989, Hungary had held no interim elections and the federal government was never forced to dissolve – two things most other countries in Central and Eastern Europe could not claim. The authors then continue in saying that, in addition, regardless of the political party in power, Hungary had honored the demands of the EU since becoming a member, including regulations on transparency , auditing, and budgets. Human Capital, Labor Costs and Economic Policy Other factors that help make Hungary an attractive investment are its labor costs, an investment friendly economic policy and its strong human capital. Hungary has a highly educated workforce where more than 85% of persons between the ages of 25-34 have completed secondary school; with 70% of those individuals are enrolled in some form of higher education. More impressive still are the wages that these highly educated individuals work for. The authors make mention of these low labor costs by saying: moreover, Hungary’s labor force worked for a fraction of their counterparts in the EU – in 2007, real wages in Hungary were 40 percent of the EU average. Essentially those companies willing to invest in Hungary’s human capital would be receiving a talented workforce, capable of achieving first-rate outcomes, at a discount rate. Frido Diepeveen, an operation manager at Randstad was quoted saying, â€Å"While the characteristics of a Hungarian workforce make Budapest an ideal choice of location for multinational companies, Hungarians also find the dynamic and multicultural atmosphere of corporate giants appealing, creating the right recipe for a mutually satisfying and long-lasting match between employer and employee. Young Hungarians are educated at a high level, satisfying your need for well qualified fresh graduates. † In addition to the affordable labor costs, Hungary’s economic policy welcomes foreign investment; and prior to its full absorption into the EU Hungary experienced some of the most aggressive foreign investment of any Eastern European country. Contrarily, it is true that there are some drawbacks to investing in Hungary, and one should be mindful of them before investing. The most obvious of these risks or drawbacks is the increasing rate of inflation. Hungary’s high inflation rate (of almost 8%) was the chief reason behind the country not being allowed in the Euro currency group – which had standards in place ensuring that inflation must be lower than 3% for a country to join. Hungary’s high rate of inflation coupled with their lingering government debt has prevented them from adopting the Euro as their chief currency and has left them with the much weaker forint. This has in turn led to higher taxes on businesses in an effort to counterbalance the large deficits and high rate of inflation. With companies being taxed at a much higher rate, companies are subsequently forced to either accept a lower profit margin or cut costs. Even after considering this major drawback to investing in Hungary, it is hard to overlook those key factors, which make Hungary a very appealing country to invest in. Bibliography

hope essays

hope essays Voting, The Best Way to Make Decisions The future of any nation depends on its youth. In order to have effective citizenship, we need to educate our youth. Our youth must be skilled in decision-making. In order for todays students to make successful decisions, they must be educated about their surroundings. Parents and teachers must work together to educate their students about the world they live in, in order for them to have sufficient decision-making skills. In order for students to have effect decision-making skills parents and teachers must teach moral values, how to make informed decisions, and why and how students should be involved in their nations government. If all of these steps are followed voting will become a routine obligation for each citizen. In order to quench the increased thirst to participate in government, more and more citizens will show up at the voting booths. Students must be educated to make informed decisions in the future. The quality of decision-making is a direct result of education. In order to make informed decisions, citizens must be aware of the effects their decisions have on society. By informing students of the effects of their choices, students will learn to make better decisions. These decisions will contribute to the stability of effective citizenship. An example of when decision making skills play a crucial role is voting. Students should have an understanding of the role their vote plays. Teachers and parents will prepare students to make knowledgeable decisions through experience. After all, the decisions students make for-shadow the decisions they will make in the future. The experience students can in consensus building as a result of their schools Shared Decision Making program will be used throughout their entire life. Teachers will encourage students to participate in their schools Shared Decision Making committee. Students participating in the Shared ...

Ethical Leadership its Variations

Ethical Leadership its Variations Abstract Researchers have concentrated efforts to uncovering aspects and conceptions of ethical leadership models that could be used in contemporary organizations to not only ensure leadership effectiveness, but also enhance follower development and realization of organizational goals.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ethical Leadership its Variations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In this light, the present analysis contributes to our understanding of one such leadership model known as ethical leadership and its variations, which include servant, spiritual and authentic leadership. The careful and exhaustive comparisons done between these leadership theories and other conventional leadership models such as transformational and charismatic leadership give credence to the fact that leader emphasis on ethical dimensions of leadership generates beneficial personal and organizational outcomes. It has also been demonstrated that value-based leadership projected in servant, spiritual and authentic leadership is predicated on shared, robustly internalized values that are promoted and acted upon by the leader, but which goes a long way to ensure leadership effectiveness, positive organizational outcomes in terms of competencies development and productivity, and follower development. Research into the servant, spiritual and authentic leadership models have demonstrated some shared, common features as well as broad differences. Although these theories may represent a paradigm shift of leadership approaches into the future, more systematic and quantitative research is needed to harmonize the varying conceptions and other grey areas of the theories discussed comprehensively in this paper. Indeed, it has been noted that the popular appeal of these evolving leadership approaches is yet to translate into credible academic respectability. Introduction Despite sustained attention by scholars and prac titioners to the wide discipline of leadership, discussions of ethical leadership in public, private and even nonprofit organizations still remains largely anecdotal and highly normative. However, as noted by Rubin, Doedorff Brown (2010), this is not to imply that the study of ethical leadership has been disregarded in its entirety.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More To the contrary, scholars, driven by ethics scandals and subsequent demise of companies like Enron, World-Com, Lehman Brothers and Tyco (Millar, Delves Harris, 2010; Sendjaya et al, 2008), have concentrated efforts to uncovering aspects and conceptions of ethical leadership, contributing to rich, descriptive information on the field (Rubin et al, 2010). The present paper purposes to examine different conceptions of ethical leadership, including servant, spiritual and authentic theories, and to compare and contrast them with the transformational and charismatic theories with a view to bring into light how these conceptions could be employed to occasion important organizational outcomes. Ethical Leadership: Background Definition Although practitioners and scholars are of the opinion that ethics is the core of leadership (Xiayong, Fen Jiannong, 2011), and while the fundamental importance of leadership – particularly top management – in promoting and sustaining ethical conduct in organizations has long been understood (Brown Mitchell, 2010), it is only in the past decade that ethical leadership has been methodically studied from a descriptive and predictive social scientific perspective (Millar et al, 2010). Earlier studies as noted by Brown Mitchell (2010) looked into the effects of leadership behaviors without developing formalized theoretical conceptions. However, it was not until early 2000s when Trevià ±o and colleagues cited in Brown Mitchell (2010) engaged in the first formal explorations focused on developing an all-encompassing definition of what ethical leadership entails. Their qualitative studies, as demonstrated by these authors, revealed that ethical leaders were best depicted along two interrelated continuums: moral person and moral manager. Later, Brown et al (2005) cited in Xiaoyong et al (2011) further illuminated the conceptualization to develop a formal definition of ethical leadership as â€Å"†¦the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision making† (p. 362). Below, this paper narrows its focus to critically examine three variants of ethical leadership, namely: servant leadership, spiritual leadership, and authentic leadership.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Ethical Leadership its Variations specif ically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Servant Leadership Definition Conceptions Robinson (2009) cited in Waterman (2011) suggests that the phrase ‘servant leadership’ in its contemporary perspective â€Å"†¦was developed by Robert Greenleaf (1977), but the idea can be traced to antiquity and is associated with a range of religious beliefs† (p. 24). Due to modernization of societies, however, the concept of service has evolved from just representing the religious connotation of ‘service to others’ to a leadership approach based on not only showing care and concern for other people (Waterman, 2011), but also demonstrating the desire to build and develop them personally and professionally (Taylor et al, 2007). Holistically, therefore, servant leadership entails â€Å"†¦helping others to accomplish shared objectives by facilitating individual development, empowerment, and collective work that is consistent with t he health and long-term welfare of followers† (Yukl, 2009, p. 420). From the systematic review of literature (e.g., Yukl, 2009; Taylor et al, 2007; Sendjaya et al, 2008), several conceptions of servant leadership have crystallized, namely: integrity; altruism; humility; empathy and healing; personal growth; fairness and justice, and; empowerment. Ebener O’Connell (2010) suggest that â€Å"†¦a servant leader begins by acting with integrity, creating supportive relationships, and helping others to grow† (p. 320). As demonstrated by Page Wong (2005), servant leadership is associated with such inner qualities as humility, integrity, fairness, altruism and a servant’s attitude, which are reinforced by the development of a highly moral and spiritual character. Effects of Servant Leadership Available literature demonstrates that organizations are increasingly searching for ethical and effective leadership that not only serve others, but invests in their de velopment and executes a shared vision (Sendjaya et al, 2008; Page Wong, 2005). According to Ebener O’Connell (2010), â€Å"†¦servant leaders encourage people to go above and beyond their own immediate interests by performing organizational citizenship behaviors [which] are defined as altruistic, prosocial activities that have been shown to enhance organizational performance† (p. 315).Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Irving (2005) postulates that servant leadership behaviors are intrinsically correlated to the effectiveness of teams in the realization of shared objectives or goals. Extant research on leadership demonstrates that when team members acknowledge servant leadership, they are bound to appear as whole people and trustworthy professional co-leaders – fundamental ingredients in building effective teams (Ebener O’Connell, 2010). Greenleaf (1977) cited in Sendjaya et al (2008) was of the opinion that â€Å"†¦servant leadership is demonstrated whenever those served by servant leaders are positively transformed in multiple dimensions (e.g. emotionally, intellectually, socially, and spiritually) into servant leaders themselves† (p. 408). This transformation takes place collectively and repeatedly, and in turn, inspires positive changes in individuals, organizations and communities. Research on Servant Leadership Researchers and practitioners have reported a shift in the leadership paradigm for the 21st century (Taylor et al, 2007) from the traditional leadership approaches to an emerging leadership approach that appears more relevant and timely in the present context (Sendjaya et al, 2008). Greenleaf’s (1977) seminal work on servant leadership not only brought the construct to the public discourse in the mid 1970s (Irving, 2005), but also stimulated interest from other researchers who have continued to expand on the topic and to shed light on various conceptions that surround servant leadership (Yukl, 2009). According to Irving (2005), â€Å"†¦the work surrounding servant leadership from the early 1990s through 2003 focused on identifying themes that could help to operationalize the concept of servant leadership† (p. 2). To quote a few of these works, Graham (1991) cited in Irving (2005) stressed the inspirational and moral dimensions of servant leadership, while Buchen (1998) suggested that self-identity, capability for rec iprocity, relationship building, and obsession with the future were fundamental themes of servant leadership. Spears (1998) also cited in Irving (2005) â€Å"†¦emphasized the dimensions of listening, empathy, healing, awareness, persuasion, conceptualization, foresight, stewardship, commitment, and community building† (p. 2). Farling et al (1999) cited in Sendjaya et al (2008) argued for the importance of servant leaders to demonstrate vision, influence, service to others, integrity, and trust, while Laub (1999) cited in Irving (2005) put forward the concepts of valuing people, developing people, participating in building community, exhibiting authenticity, providing leadership, and sharing leadership as essential for servant leaders. Limitations of Servant Leadership It has been suggested that although the literature â€Å"†¦on servant leadership have increased in the past few years, there has still been limited research conducted in a systematic, quantitative man ner† (Taylor et al, 2007 p. 415). Indeed, the popular appeal of servant leadership as an evolving leadership approach has not translated into academic respectability, in large part due to the under-representation of the theory in major textbooks on management, leadership and organizational behavior. Due to the lack of a significant research base on servant leadership, Sendjaya et al (2008) postulate that the model is still been faced with vague psychometric properties, which are fundamentally important for further development and validation of the approach. It is also generally felt that many organizations that are perceived to practice servant leadership are hierarchical in nature and, consequently, the power distance between the servant leaders and their followers or other team members may not be conducive to the elements or themes of servant leadership discussed in this paper (Ebener O’Connell, 2010). Spiritual Leadership Definition Conceptions Fry (2003) argues th at â€Å"†¦the purpose of spiritual leadership is to create vision and value congruence across the strategic, empowered team, and individual levels and, ultimately, to foster higher levels of organizational commitment and productivity† (p. 693). Unlike classic organizational, administrative and leadership theories, spiritual leadership can be defined as encompassing the values, attitudes, and behaviors that are perceived as essential to fundamentally motivate people so that they are able to develop a sense of spiritual survival at work through calling and membership (Karadog, 2009). Extant research demonstrates that although the conceptions of spiritual leadership are many and varied (Carter, 2009), they revolve around the issues of spiritual beliefs (e.g., hope and faith in God); transcendence of self, manifesting in an active sense of calling or destiny; engagement in spiritual practices (e.g., praying, meditating, and reading scripture), and; conviction that an indivi dual’s activities have meaning and value beyond the immediate economic benefits or self-gratification (Ferguson Miliman, 2008). Consequently, this paper will utilize one construct proposed by Fry (2003) cited in Freeman (2011), which â€Å"†¦explains spirituality in leadership within an intrinsic motivation model that incorporates vision, altruistic love/faith; theories of workplace spirituality and spiritual survival; and the organizational outcomes of commitment and productivity† (p. 122). Research on Spiritual Leadership Fry Matherly (n.d.) are in agreement that â€Å"†¦issues regarding workplace spirituality have been receiving increased attention in the organizational sciences and the implications of workplace spirituality for leadership theory, research, and practice make this a fast growing area of new research and inquiry by scholars† (p. 3). Research has demonstrated that spiritual leadership not only lead to valuable personal results such a s enhanced positive human health and psychological happiness but that it also conveys improved employee satisfaction, loyalty and commitment while reducing instances of absenteeism and turnover (Carter, 2009). Indeed, Kaplan Norton (2004) cited in Fry Matherly (n.d.) argue that â€Å"†¦a high degree of workplace spirituality and spiritual leadership, as a driver of organizational commitment and productivity, is essential to optimizing organizational performance† (p. 3). Consequently, many research studies (e.g., Ferguson Miliman, 2008; Freeman, 2011; Fry Cohen, 2009; Fry Matherly, n.d.) conclude that spiritual leadership basically entails motivating and inspiring employees through a transcendent vision and a culture that is intrinsically grounded on altruistic values to produce a more inspired, satisfied, committed and productive workforce. Limitations of Spiritual Leadership Researchers have identified several major weaknesses that must be addressed for spiritual l eadership to gain acceptance within the scientific community as a newly emerging paradigm. Ferguson Miliman (2008) note that there exist a lack of accepted conceptual definition of what spirituality actually entails, while Fry Cohen (2008) note that there are inadequate measurement tools to evaluate the thematic conceptions of spirituality. Limited theoretical development and legal concerns have also been identified as genuine challenges for the development of a leadership paradigm that is rooted in spirituality (Fry Matherly, n.d.). Authentic Leadership Definition and Conceptions The term authenticity â€Å"†¦implies that one acts in accord with the true self, expressing oneself in ways that are consistent with inner thoughts and feelings† (Avolio Gardner, 2005, p. 320). The recognition of the self-referential nature of authenticity, therefore, is fundamental to comprehending the construct of authentic leadership. Avolio et al (2004) cited in Avolio Gardner (2005) describe authentic leaders as individuals who are profoundly conscious â€Å"†¦of how they think and behave and are perceived by others as being aware of their own and others’ values/moral perspectives, knowledge, and strengths; aware of the context in which they operate; and who are confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, and of high moral character† (p. 321). The related conception of authentic leadership is defined by academics as a process that draws from both positive psychological capabilities and a well matured organizational context, which results in both superior self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors and actions on the part of leaders and their followers (Avolio Garner, 2005), fostering positive modeling, self-development, and the attainment of sustainable and veritable performance (Rowe Guerrero, 2011; Blausten, 2009). Effects of Authentic Leadership The effects of authentic leadership are many and varied (Blausten, 2009), and include : development of positive psychological capital and positive moral perspective (Rowe Guerrero, 2011); development of leader and follower self-awareness in terms of values, cognitions, and emotions; development of leader and follower self-regulation in terms of internalized behavior, balanced processing, and authentic behavior (Avolio Gardner, 2005); development of leadership processes and behaviors such as positive modeling, personal and social identification, emotional contagion, self determination and positive social exchanges (Sendjaya et al, 2008); follower development, and; veritable and sustainable organizational performance (Rubin et al, 2010). It is also generally felt that authentic leadership institutes open, transparent, trusting and genuine relationships between the leaders and followers. Research on Authentic Leadership A number of scholars have undertaken research on authentic leadership. One of the pioneers of these studies was Bill George, who posited â€Å"†¦that being yourself; being the person you were created to be rather than developing an image or persona of a leader is the way to restore confidence in business organizations after Enron and Arthur Andersen† (Sparrowe, 2005, p. 420). When formulating their model of authentic leadership development, Luthans Avolio (2003) cited in Sparrowe (2005) argue that the kind of leadership that can reinstate confidence from the challenge of declining hope in organizational leaders and their associates is by engaging individuals who are true to themselves, and whose transparency and accountability in either public or private discourse positively transforms or develops the followers into leaders themselves. Limitations of Authentic Leadership While Walumbwa et al (2008) report that it is often difficult to measure some aspects of authentic leadership, Avolio Garner (2005) argue that more research is needed â€Å"†¦on the relationship between authentic leadership and the levels of s elf-awareness of leaders and followers† (p. 334). These authors also report a dearth in research relating to evaluating the direct consequence of the leader’s positive psychological capital on associates and their mediating outcomes on sustained organizational productivity and performance. Similarities Differences of Servant, Spiritual Authentic Approaches of Leadership Research into the three approaches of leadership has demonstrated some shared, common features of the approaches as well as broad differences. Among the similarities, Avolio Gardener (2005) argue that leaders in the three approaches must exhibit positive moral perspective and demonstrate self-awareness in terms of values, cognitions, and emotions. Similarly, all approaches advocate for self-determination, follower self-awareness and follower development (Sendjaya et al, 2008), not mentioning that they share a strong emphasis on the ethical dimension of leadership (Brown Mitchell, 2010). Sendjaya et a l (2008) argue that both the â€Å"†¦servant leadership and Fry’s (2003) spiritual leadership models appeal to virtuous leadership practices and intrinsic motivating factors to cultivate a sense of meaning, purpose, and interconnectedness in the workplace† (p. 404). These authors suggest that both leadership paradigms endeavor to facilitate a holistic, integrated workplace where people engage in significant, meaningful and intrinsically motivating work, and where leadership orientation finds its expression or meaning and purpose of life through service. Indeed, available literature demonstrates that the spiritual leadership’s conceptions of vision, altruistic love, and hope/faith (Fry Matherly, n.d.) are also embedded in the conceptions of servant leadership (Sendjaya et al, 2008; Freeman, 2011). Given the discussed similarities, it would be conceivable to assert that â€Å"†¦servant leadership is embedded in spiritual leadership in that servant lead ership is a manifestation of altruistic love in the action of pursuing transcendent vision and being driven to satisfy needs for calling and membership† (Sendjaya et al, 2008, p. 404). Conversely, it would be equally conceivable to argue that spiritual leadership is grounded on the motivational basis for servant leaders to engage followers in authentic and thoughtful ways that transform their behavioral orientation to be what they are competent of becoming (Freeman, 2011). Sendjaya et al (2008) posit that servant leaders have the capacity to lead authentically since their leadership originates from the ‘being’ as evidenced in their unswerving display of humility, integrity, accountability, security and vulnerability. It is important to note that the causal spiritual leadership model developed by Fry (2003) cited in Sendjaya et al (2008) â€Å"†¦identifies follower needs for spiritual survival as expressed through calling and membership as outcome variables, whereas calling and membership are inherent in servant leadership behaviors† (p. 405). Consequently, it can be argued that spirituality is one of the many facets of servant leadership, but there exist other equally fundamental facets such as self-sacrificial servant-hood behavior, empowerment, collective work, and moral values that are not evidently expressed in many spiritual leadership models (Sendjaya et al, 2008). It has been observed that a critical aspect of spiritual leadership is the need to be authentic, hence the relationship between spiritual leadership and authentic leadership. Spiritual leadership is also related to servant leadership in that it intrinsically focuses on â€Å"†¦serving others and emphasizing the development of people† (Ferguson Milliman, 2008, p. 448). Among the differences, Avolio Garner (2005) notes that internalized self regulation is demonstrated in both spiritual and authentic leadership, while authentic behavior is demonstrated in servant as well as authentic leadership, but not in spiritual leadership. Equally, it can be argued that spirituality is a significant source of motivation for servant leaders but is not highlighted in the authentic leadership model (Sendjaya et al, 2008). Personal and social identification on the part of the leader is present in authentic leadership but vaguely demonstrated in both servant and spiritual leadership. Equally, positive social exchange is clearly outlined as a conception of authentic leadership but not for spiritual and servant leadership (Avolio Gardner, 2005). The conception of follower self-awareness in terms of cognitions and emotions is clearly outlined in both authentic and spiritual leadership, but is not considered in the servant leadership. Lastly, it has been noted in the literature that the conception of relational transparency is carried with much weight in authentic leadership but not in the other two leadership approaches (Avolio Gardner, 2005) Comp aring the Approaches with Transformational Charismatic Theories Defining Transformational Leadership Burns (1978) cited in Sagnak (2010) defined transformational leadership as moral leadership, where â€Å"†¦leaders and followers further take each other’s motivation and morality to higher levels† (p. 1137). Bass (1985) also cited in Sagnak (2010) further advanced the transformational leadership approach to include the aspects of idealized influence (charisma) on the part of the leader, inspirational motivation, self-fulfillment, intellectual simulation, self-actualization, and personalized consideration. A transformational leader, according to Engelbrecht et al (2005), aims to fundamentally alter the values, beliefs and attitudes of followers. Defining Charismatic Leadership Weber (1947) cited in Fry (2003) defined charismatic leadership as any approach that demonstrates: strong desire to influence others; ability to act as a role model for the beliefs and values that followers need to adopt; ability to articulate ideological goals with moral overtones; ability to communicate high expectations and demonstrate confidence in followers’ abilities to meet and surpass these expectations; ability to arouse task-relevant motivation by tapping followers’ needs for esteem, power, and affiliation, and; ability to link the identity of followers (employees) to the collective identity of the organization. A Discussion of the Similarities Differences Leadership scholars have often asserted that servant leadership is somewhat similar to transformational leadership in that â€Å"†¦both approaches encourage leaders and followers to raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality† (Sendjaya et al, 2008, p. 403). However, these authors note that servant leaders are theoretically different from Bass’s (1985) transformational leaders in that not only are servant leaders more likely than transformational leaders to exhibit the natural inclination to serve disadvantaged and marginalized people, but the outcomes of enhanced motivation and commitment demonstrated by transformational leaders â€Å"†¦may not necessarily benefit followers as there is nothing in the transformational leadership model that says that leaders should serve followers for the good of followers† (p. 403). However, it should be noted that as is the case with servant leadership, the transformational leadership model outlined by Burns (1978) cited in Sendjaya et al (2008) required leaders to lead the followers for their own ultimate good. While the role of servant leaders may be seen in the light of serving followers; that of a transformational leader may be perceived in the light of encouraging followers to pursue organizational goals and objectives (Sendjaya et al, 2008). Another distinction closely related to this is that while transformational leadership deals primarily with ‘performance beyond expectatio ns’, servant leadership is fundamentally concerned with entrenching the followers’ holistic moral and ethical development (Taylor et al, 2005). Whetstone (2002) observes that whereas a transformational leader may be instrumental and manipulative in nature, a servant leader is bound to be manipulated by the followers. Taylor et al (2007) suggest that although servant leadership may be perceived as an extension of transformational leadership, it ends up valuing people and treating them as ends rather than means while many transformational theories treats people as means to achieve organizational objectives. However, the authors note that the followers’ emotional attachment to the leader in servant leadership, along with the motivational arousal of followers as an outcome of the leader’s behavior and actions, is fundamentally considered a consequence of transformational leadership. Carter (2009) argues that spiritual leadership shares some convergent element s with transformational leadership in that it is not only linked to social responsibility, integrity and stability, but it shapes the values, beliefs and practices of followers, and provides overall meaning to their own existence. Some central components of both spiritual and transformational leadership theories, according to Sagnak (2010), include the commitment of the manager to a higher cause or purpose and the articulation of meaningful values on a deeper level to organizational members. Additionally, Avolio Gardner (2005) posit that the conception of follower development is a focal component in servant, spiritual, and authentic leadership but is vaguely outlined in transformational and charismatic leadership models. As observed by Avolio Gardner (2005), transformational and authentic leadership are related in that authenticity serves as a moral compass by which the objectives and intentions of transformational leaders can be holistically determined. However, these authors not e that although authentic leadership can encompass all the other leadership approaches (e.g., transformational, charismatic, servant, and spiritual), it may not be charismatic to the extent demonstrated by transformational leadership as authentic leaders must work hard and lead with purpose, meaning and values to build lasting relationship with followers. To the contrary, Sagnak (2010) observes that transformational leaders â€Å"†¦may be charismatic in their opinion of the followers and thereby inspire them; they meet emotional needs of each employee and/or provide intellectual simulation† (p. 1137). This distinction demonstrates that being an authentic leader does not automatically imply that the leader is transformational. Brown Mitchell (2010) posit that â€Å"†¦transformational and charismatic leadership have been studied extensively and the cumulative findings suggest that [they] are positively associated with important ethics-related outcomes such as follow er’s perceptions of trust in fairness of their leader and organizational citizenship behaviors† (p. 586). This therefore implies that these leadership approaches projects similar elements with servant, spiritual and authentic leadership in terms of followers’ trust and organizational citizenship behaviors. Internalized self regulation and personal and social identification are focal components shared by authentic, spiritual, transformational, and charismatic leadership approaches, but are largely absent in servant leadership (Avolio Gardner, 2005). Conclusion This analysis contributes to our understanding of ethical leadership and its different variations, namely servant, spiritual and authentic leadership. The careful comparisons between these leadership theories and other conventional leadership models such as transformational and charismatic leadership give credence to the fact that leader emphasis on ethical dimensions of leadership generates beneficial pers onal and organizational outcomes. It has also been demonstrated that value-based leadership projected in servant, spiritual and authentic leadership is predicated on shared, robustly internalized values that are promoted and acted upon by the leader, but which goes a long way to ensure leadership effectiveness, positive organizational outcomes in terms of competencies development and productivity, and follower development (Fry, 2003). The task, therefore, is for the management of contemporary organizations to select a leadership approach that will articulate a better vision of a better future. Reference List Avolio, B.J., Gardner, W.L. (2005). Authentic leadership development: Getting to the root of positive forms of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(1), 315-338. Blausten, P. (2009). Can authentic leadership survive the downturn? Business Strategy Review, 20(1), 84-87. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Brown, M.E., Mitchell, M.S. (2010). Ethical and unethical leadership: Exploring new avenues for future research. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(4), 585-616. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Carter, J. (2009). Transformational leadership and pastoral leader effectiveness. Pastoral Psychology, 58(3), 261-271. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Ebener, D.R., O’Connell, D.J. (2010). How might servant leadership work? Nonprofit Management Leadership, 20(3), 315-335. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Engelbresht, A.S., Van Aswegen, A.S., Theron, C.C. (2005). The effect of ethical values on transformational leadership and ethical climate in organizations. South African Journal of Business Management, 36(2), 19-26. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Ferguson, J., Miliman, J. (2008). Creating effective core organizational values: A spiritual leadership approach. International Journal of Public Administration, 31(4), 439-459. Freeman, G.T. (2011). Spirituality and servant leadersh ip: A Conceptual model and research proposal. Emerging Leadership Journeys, 4(1), 120-140. Fry, L., Cohen, M. (2009). Spiritual leadership as a paradigm for organizational transformation and recovery from extended work hours cultures. Journal of Business Ethics, 84(2), 265-278. Fry, L.W., Matherly, L.L. (n.d.). Spiritual leadership and organizational performance: An exploratory study. Retrieved from https://www.tarleton.edu/home/. Irving, J.A. (2005). Servant leadership and the effectiveness of teams. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Regent University. Retrieved from http://people.bethel.edu/~irvjus/PDF/Irving,Justin-RegentUniversity_final.pdf. Karadog, E. (2009). Spiritual leadership and organizational culture: A study of structural equation modeling. Educational Sciences: Theory Practice, 9(3), 1391-1405. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Millar, C.J.M., Delves, R., Harris, P. (2010). Ethical and unethical leadership: Double vision? Journal of Public Affairs, 10(3), 109-120. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Rowe, G., Guerrero, L. (2011). Cases in leadership. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Rubin, R.S., Diedorff, E.C., Brown, M.E. (2010). Do ethical leaders get ahead? Exploring ethical leadership and promotability. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(2), 215-236. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Sagnak, M. (2010). The relationship between transformational school leadership and ethical climate. Educational Sciences: Theory Practice, 10(2), 1135-1152. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Sendjaya, S., Sarros, J.C., Santora, J.C. (2008). Defining and measuring servant leadership behavior in organizations. Journal of Management Studies, 45(2), 402-424. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Sparrowe, R.T. (2005). Authentic leadership and the narrative self. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(1), 419-439. Taylor, T., Martin, B.N., Hutchinson, S., Jinks, M. (2007). Examination of leadership practices of principles identified as servant leaders. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 10(4), 401-419. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Walumbwa, F., Avolio, B., Gardner, W., Wernsing, T., Peterson, S. (2008). Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of Management, 34(1), 89-126. Waterman, H. (2011). Principles of servant leadership and how they can enhance practice. Nursing Management, 17(9), 24-36. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Whetstone, J.T. (2002). Personalism and moral leadership: The servant leader with a transforming vision. Business Ethics: A European Review, 11(4), 385-392. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Database. Xiaoyong, X., Fen, Y., Jiannong, S. (2011). Ethical leadership and leaders’ personalities. Social Behavior Personality: An International Journal, 39(3), 361-268. Retrieved from Academic Search Premier Database. Yukl, G.A. (2009). Leaders hip in Organizations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Comprehensive Classroom Management Plan

Comprehensive Classroom Management Plan A Comprehensive Classroom Management Plan is critical for the success of a teacher in any kind of classroom. Still, a poorly organized resource room or self-contained classroom will be just as unproductive and chaotic as a general education classroom without a behavior rudder-perhaps more so. Too long, teachers have relied on being the biggest, the loudest or a bully to control misbehavior. Many children with disabilities have learned that disruptive behavior will help them avoid the embarrassment of revealing to their peers that they cant read, or that they get the answers wrong more often than not. Creating a well ordered and successful classroom is important for all children. Shy or well-behaved children need to know that they will be safe. Disruptive students need to have the structure that will support their best behavior and learning, not their worst behavior. Classroom Management: A Legal Obligation Because of lawsuits, states have created legislation that requires teachers to provide progressive discipline plans for students. Creating a safe educational environment is more than something nice, it is a legal responsibility as well as important to retaining employment. Being proactive is the best way to be sure that you can meet this important obligation. A Comprehensive Plan For a plan to truly be successful, it needs to: Provide clarity about expectations. This begins with rules but needs to continue with teaching. Routines or procedures also provide clarity about expectations.Recognize and reward appropriate behavior. This can be provided through Positive Behavior Support.Sanction and provide consequences for unacceptable behavior. In order to assure that a plan provides each of these things, it will also require all of the following. Reinforcement: Sometimes the term consequence is used for positive as well as negative outcomes. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) uses the term reinforcement. Reinforcement can be intrinsic, social or physical. Reinforcement can be designed to support replacement behavior, though in a class-wide system you may want to offer a menu of reinforcers, and let students select things they find reinforcing. Put food items on the bottom of the elementary reinforcement menu, so you can white out those items if your school/district has policies against using food for reinforcement. If you have students with really difficult behaviors, a sandwich bag of popcorn is often enough to keep them working for long periods of time independently. Reinforcement Systems: These plans can support a whole class in positive behavior plans: Token Systems: Tokens can be points, chips, stickers or other ways to record students successes. You need to find the best way to communicate immediately when students have earned tokens toward the reinforcers of their choice.A Lottery System: Catch students being good and give them tickets that are good for a drawing. I like the red tickets you can buy for carnivals, and kids like them too.The Marble Jar: a jar or another way to accumulate the whole classes success toward a group prize (a field trip, a pizza party, a movie day) will help provide a visual reminder of rewards: it also helps you remember to sprinkle praise generously around your classroom. Consequences: A system of negative outcomes to prevent unacceptable behaviors. As part of a progressive discipline plan, you want to have consequences in place. Jim Fay, author of Parenting with Love and Logic, refers to natural consequences and logical consequences. Natural consequences are outcomes that flow automatically from behaviors. Natural consequences are the most powerful, but few of us would find them acceptable. The natural consequence of running into the street is getting hit by a car. The natural consequence of playing with knives is to get badly cut. Those are not acceptable. Logical consequences teach because they are logically connected to the behavior. A logical consequence of not completing work is losing recess time when work can be completed. A logical consequence of ruining a textbook is to pay for the book, or when that is difficult, to put in volunteer time to repay the school for lost resources. Consequences for a progressive discipline plan might include: A warning,The loss of part or all of recess,The loss of privileges, such as computer time,A letter home,Parent contact by phone,After School Detention, and/orSuspension or other administrative action as a last resort. Think Sheets can be used as part of your progressive plan, especially at that point when students lose all or part of their recess or other free time. Use them with care: for students who dont like to write may see writing as punishment. Having students write I will not talk in class 50 times has the same effect. Serious or Repetitive Behavior Problems Have an emergency plan and practice it if you are likely to have a student with serious behavior problems. Determine who should get a phone call if you need to remove children either because they are having a tantrum, or because their tantrums put their peers at risk. Students with disabilities should have Functional Behavioral Analysis, completed by the teacher or school psychologist, followed by a Behavior Improvement Plan created by the teacher and the Multiple Disciplinary Team (IEP Team). The plan needs to be disseminated to all the teachers who will have contact with the student.