Human Profile

Chapter 5 gracious Factors in tune warranter limit Page INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Background on gentle fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 FAA AND HUMAN FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 FAA insurance form _or_ system of government and conceptions for Human Factors and breeze certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 FAA Requirements for Aviation aegis Human-Factors Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Other Issues for Human Factors and compose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Policy Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Box Box Page 5-A. UAL advanced Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Chapter 5 Human Factors in Aviation pledge factors in these cases cigargontte greatly modify the utilization of engine room for air lane aegis. Dramatic accidents ca morald by tender errors in the nuclear power, chemical, and conveyance industries consume increased semipublic attention to world surgical process issues during the past decade. excess study requirements, revise operative procedures, warning devices, and expanded organization circumspection ar typical recommendations following accident investigations.However, these stopgap measures address solely the surface of problems that argon rooted in the Gordian interactions of pack and equipment indoors the roundr dust and the institutional and organizational structures and procedures that baffle the planning, design, and trouble of these sy shucks. undermentioned the ground col lision of twain jetliners in Detroit in celestial latitude 1990, Dr. conjuration Lauber, a member of the National Transportation Board, said that fundamental bothy the air power arranging of rules, the counseling were operating it, al or so considers nearly error-free charitable surgery. Similar c erstwhilerns tidy sum be echoed for the aura hostage systema routine of succeederful airway terrorist events tolerate been traced to a merciful ill fortune. 2 The ch altogetherenge is to design a system. . which is tolerant of those errors when they do occur and which detects and traps them before we give birth a catastrophe. 3 Multilayered defenses ar employed at many an(prenominal) commercial airports and air lane terminals, and certification managers and g overnment authorities argon turning to new technologies to exactlytress these systems. Heretofore, federal requirements and constancy use of certification technologies have usually been with specific proc eeds in mind.As large as the technical goals could be met effectively, the equipment was considered satisfactory and mankind doing problems link to the technology were resolved through revised reading and procedures. engine room use in counterterrorism will likely increase dramatically over the near decade, alone if early and INTRODUCTION Human resources be critical to airmanship certificate. shelter strength passenger and baggage screeners, guards and law enforcement portionrs, and airport and air passage employees in everyday- argon important elements of a system that prevents and deters hostile acts against air carriers. engineering science mess enhance, just now can non replace, the capabilities of these people and the many services they provide. Moreover, vigilance practices establish on behavioural research findings can further improve human surgical procedure. This chapter considers the function of screeners in weapons and explosives detection, and the fi bre of guards, officers, and well-nigh other line employees in discovering (and deterring) suspicious individuals or situations. Within the past 20 years, technology has greatly increased the power and productivity of these protective covering people.Metal detectors and roentgen ray devices atomic number 18 spendthrifter, to a greater extent accu order, and to a greater extent socially acceptable tools for m withdrawing passengers and baggage than manual searches. Remote television and other supervise devices, computer- fitled access to restricted areas, and talk and in ground levelation systems allow house-to-house surveillance and nemesis sagaciousness. While these technologies raise the capabilities of a protective cover system to new trains, their ultimate success and sincere comp permiteance depend on the people who design, operate, and maintain them.Many pledge assignments require repetitive tasks and close monitoring for rare events functions that humans perform disadvantageously. Selecting well(p)-suited individuals, training them properly, designing their work purlieu and rotation schedule to elicit the best possible performance, and providing motivating incentives are funda moral requirements for lucky operations, regardless of the type of technology in place. These functions take up human performance application of human p. A17. IJohn Lauber quoted by John H. Cushmau younger , Test for Aviation Coping with Human Shortcomings,The New York Times, Dec. 0, 1990, ne sample was the destruction of a Korean Air Lines flight over the Andaman ocean by a bomb planted by North Korean agents. The device, in a carry-on bag, was ahnost detected at a protective covering checkpoint in Baghdad at an in the first place stop. When a security department guard wished to send off the batteries from a radio, one terrorist turned the radio on, proving it operated, and then raised a hue and cry, yelling and complaining. Instead of using this a s a earth to stop the two suspect individuals and to examine their attribute minutely, the security forces discrete to avoid trouble by allowing them to proceed. Laur, op. cit. , footnote 1. 79 80 q Technology Against Terrorism Structuring Security methodic attention is not given to human performance issues, we whitethorn expect that system efficiency and effectiveness will be materially impaired. Background on Human Error The human role in a security system is complex thus the constitution of human errors, from mental to physical, varies widely. Mental or cognitive errors can include improper judgment or decisivenessmaking, while physical errors may stem from motor skill deficiencies or faulty equipment design.A combination of physical and mental processes may catch other kinds of errors, much(prenominal)(prenominal) as those involving communication, perception, or alertness. Human factors, a discipline combining behavioral sciences and design, focuses on improving the per formance of complex systems of people and machines. Designing and operating a system so that it does not induce human error (in fact, designing it so that human error may be minimized) is one critical component of human factors and limiting the impact of a human error once it occurs is some other aspect.Many types of human error are systematic, following certain predictable patterns once these patterns are identified, countermeasures can be substantial. For example, poor location of switches or dials can induce manual or perceptual errors. For those types of human error that do not follow predictable patterns, mitigation techniques are difficult to develop. both(prenominal) examples of mitigation techniques include automatic monitoring and warning devices. These subsystems, when properly k immediatelying and implemented, can be invaluable tools for negating human error.Employee enduranceallowing into the system altogether those people least likely to bugger off mistakes and c ontinued quality control maintained through training and monitoring are canonic go for minimizing human errors. Potential errors can be forestalled by the use of well-worn procedures and checklists for routine and emergency tasks, planning work shifts and assignments so as not to induce inattention and 4EM1 L. hlC. , fatigue, and properly designing the work environment. If human factors engineering is done properly at the conceptual and design stage, the cost is high, but paid merely once.If tranin g must redeem for poor design, the expenditure is paid every day. 4 According to one expert, there does not appear to be a strong need for new basic research in human factors associate spectifically to security-behavioral science findings in general and pay off with human performance problems in other industries are likely sufficient to enhance current security operations. 5 For example, such companionship is world employ to upgrade security screener selection by air ducts, and to improve training standards.However, the mechanisms to bring up early on and to address effectively the human performance issues stemming from new security technologies, such as explosives detection systems, are not yet in place in intentness or the federal Government. Shifting boring and repetitive tasks that people perform poorly to machines is an progression that can reduce errors. However, automate devices (or any new technology) may create new sources of human error. 6 Excessive false alarms unnecessarily distract operators and may lead to the device being ignored or disabled.During unusual or emergency circumstances, the lack of flexibility in many automated systems can be a serious limitation and the human backup may not be mentally or physically prepared (or possibly even capable) to take over. Consequently, a full system approach is required for reducing total human errors. FAA AND HUMAN FACTORS FAA Policy and Plans for Human Factors and Aviation Security In a re port released in July 1988, OTA concluded that FAA attention to the spectrum of human performance problems in commercial gentle wind fell far short of the level warranted, since human error is the direct cause of tune accidents. Later that same year, Congress passed the Aviation precaution Nagel wiener, $cwit Automation Hun acor in Aviation, Eu1 L. wiener and David c. (eds. ) (Sm Diego, CA Academic PESS, 1988) p. 454. SH. cfion FoUShee, cef scienlc and Tec Advi,qor for Human FaCto, FAA pso wmmunimtio 1991. 6see wiener, op. cit. , fote 4, Ch. 13 for a discourseion of new and subtle types of human error that have resulted from the introduction of automation into aircraft cockpits. W. S. Congress, OffIce of Technology discernment Safe Skies for Tomorrow Aviation Safefy in a Competitive Environnzent, OE4-SET-381 (Washington, DC U.S. Government Printing Offke, July 1988). Chapter 5-Hurnun Factors in Aviation Security q 81 Research Act, which directed the FAA to expand its research trials on human performance in air power and authorized funds specifically for that purpose. 8 The FAA responded by creating the position of Chief Scientific and technical foul Advisor for Human Factors, amenable for coordinating for the FAA various human-factors research efforts within the FAA NASA, and the DOD and for opening lines of communication within the FAA and industry.Communication among Federal agencies is critical, since decisions make by the aviation industry and the operational and regulatory sections of the FAA lots drive the need for new human-factors research and could receipts from an apprehensiveness of humanfactors research findings and products. The FAA has made progress in addressing the earlier reprehension of its human-factors programs and understanding in aircraft and air work control (ATC) equipment and operations.However, the key shortcomings in FAA human-factors efforts that OTA cited in its 1988 study-insufficient agency expertness, uncoordinat ed research efforts, and regulations and certification standards that do not reflect human-factors principles-still exist within FAA civil aviation security programs. During the frame of its study, OTA examined closely many of the technology developing programs and regulatory efforts underway in the security sections of FAA and found a general lack of awareness and understanding of the human-factors issues involved with possible new security technologies.An exception to this situation, however, and a shining indicator of a new trend, has been the hiring of a human-factors expert at the FAA Technical Center to oversee human-factors research as it relates to flight path business security. However, at present, it appears that the FAA is ill-prepared to identify and address possible human-factors concerns with the increasely complex and diverse security technologies now under development. The dearth of trained humanfactors specialists in areas of the FAA responsible for civil aviat ion security is a serious deficiency.Until recently, the Aviation Security R&D Service of the Technical Center would have merited similar concerns, but this shortcoming is being redressed, at least in part. roughly of the expertise that the FAA is developing on human factors for other uses could to a fault be apply to security issues. cardinal electromotive force vehicle for bringing human-factors knowledge into aviation security efforts is the National Plan for Aviation Human Factors (HF Plan), the first study product of the heightened FAA attention to human performance issues following the enactment of the Aviation Safety Research Act.The HF Plan identifies significant human performance issues and lays out a 10-year blueprint for establishing and coordinating research programs and conveying the results crossways Federal agencies and industry. The HF Plans development depended strongly on advisory committees composed of a cross-section of research, operational, and regulato ry representatives from government and industry and approximately 50 of the nations leading human-factors researchers. The dear(p) cognition information for aviation security is that the Plan appears to provide a strong ft for multi- and cross-disciplinary efforts and understanding in human factors and has begun to institutionalize and focus rumination of human-factors issues in FAA decisionmaking. The bad news is that nowhere in the Plan is security mentionedthe Plan addresses the following five aviation environments only aircraft flight deck, air traffic control, aircraft maintenance, airway facilities maintenance, and flight deck/ATC integration.This should not be construed as animadversion of the general thrust of the HF Planthe human-factors categories considered have historically been more than critical to aviation galosh and are considerably more complex than human performance issues in security-and it is beyond the scope of this study to crumble in detail the specif ics of the HF Plan. However, some documentarys and products of the HF Plan peradventure directly transferable to aviation security, provided that lines of communication are established and security experts are included in committee structures.The Plan has eight objectives, all of which can apply to aviation security, but the following two are especially pertinent, given the present attention to technologies for countering terrorism . to encourage the development of principles of human-centered automation and the design of SAviation Stieu Research emailprotected I%blic bW 100-591. %J. S. surgical incision of Transportation Fedeml Aviation Administratio The National Plan For Aviation Human Factors, vol. I, draf November 1990. 82 q Technology Against Terrorism Structuring Security dvanced technology that will capitalize on the relative strengths of humans and machines . to develop human factors-oriented validation and certification standards for aviation system hardware and personn el office department that will enhance both safety and efficiency . 10 The HF Plan is intentional to be reexamined and revised periodically and aviation security could be added explicitly as a focus area if need and resources warrant. Crucial to the development and future success of the HF pian is the Human Factors arrange Committee (HFCC), formed by the FAA administra11 tor in September 1989.HFCC has representatives from for each one major division of FAA and serves as an advisory physical structure for senior management of FAA in all matters involving human performance and is intend to assure that human factors issues are represented in all FAA activities. 12 Until very recently, the sponsor executive director for Civil Aviation Security was not represented on this committee. However, this omission has since been recti13 critical-flight safety is at risk only when security performance fails at the same time that a nemesis occurs.Moreover, FAA staff and the agency cul- ture are predominantly interested in aviation technology and operations and protecting facilities and countering terrorism are not an native part of aviation, l4 However, the increasing Complexity of screening technologies and the continuing (possibly increasing) terrorist panic make the performance of aviation security systems more critical to flight safety. fied. Aviation terrorist events in the 1980s made apparent the shortcomings of the minimum Federal security requirements.The FAA and the airlines both foc apply attention on screener selection and training, detection and screening technologies, and airline management of security programs and systems. The FAA has increased requirements and circumspection of security personnel (selection, training, and management) and equipment (weapons and explosives detectors), but has not yet addressed how security personnel and equipment perform as components of a system. Screener Selection and Training For years, the people who screened airli ne passengers and baggage for domestic flights primarily received light training, low locks, and few wellbeings.Consequently, alarmin g numbers of domestic 15 FAA Requirements for Aviation Security Human-Factors Implications Aviation security personnel and equipment have received (and have not compulsory) the same level of regulatory and certification attention that the FAA places on flightcrew, air-traffic controllers, and ground brook personnel and their respective aviation equipment. The FAA has foc utilise its regulatory efforts on elements of the aviation system essential to flight safety. For example, the performance of pilots and aircraft systems are continuously critical for maintaining safety-a failure could cause an accident.On the other hand, the performance of the security system (other than as a deterrent) is rarely not screeners failed unannounced FAA streaks (22 share failure rate in 1988). 16 Since there has not been a revolting domestic terrorist scourge a gainst aviation in the united States, these shortcomings have not resulted in deportment or property losses. 17 In light of public ram following the Lockerbie disaster and costly fines stermming from FAA inspections, the Air Transport Association (ATA) substantial an extensive set of screener selection, training, and compensation standards.ATA pro- 1%id. , p. 3. lllbid. , p. 28. l%id. , p. 28. lsundm tie FAA rgatio sce fi plaW in 1988 emailprotected 1990, tie Office of Aviation Security wu represented the Executive Director for Regulatory Standards and Compliance, to whom it reported. 14fiowlge of aviation twolow d Operatiom i5 impot to fict ad ofi sty. For eple, spec characteristics of aviatio such as large volumes of people and luggage that must be screened quickly, drive the security system design and functions.IsHowever, es ustomy ve gher snds for security personuel working h ktWtEitiOlld OpelZitiOllS. 16Lpe Osmus, office of Aviation Security, FW, personalised COllMIluIlk titiOIL Feb. 22, 1991. emailprotected on tie deffitio he desction of a PSA ftight in 1987, caused by a disgruntled ex-emPIOYW Who Shot tie flying conclave in emailprotected t aircraft be considered a terroris4 as well as criminal, act. In this case, theex-employee had an identifkation card with which he gained access to the so screener training was not an issue. Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security 83 posed that airlines (or their security haveors) 18 consider education and health criteria, the ability to speak English, and aptitude test results before hiring screeners, and that they offer competitive wages, benefits, and incentives and follow a comp training curriculum. In March 1990, the ATA asked the FAA to adopt its proposal as requirements for all airlines. ground on this cooperative industry effort, the FAA has required some of these suggested upgrades in training measures for screeners. (Most U. S. irlines have adopted at least some of the ATA recommendations the failure rate on random checks has since dropped significantly. )19 The FAA decided not to include selection and wage standards because such a change would require public comment (i. e. , through the Federal Register), thereby calling attention to perceived or actual security weaknesses. rewards to those who detect test weapons and explosives (and even higher rewards to those who find the certain thing) and increasing wages to at least the topical anaesthetic prevailing rate. For comparison, in Israel, screeners are paid at a level considered a good salary, far higher than minimum wage. In Switzerland, they are paid at the rate of about $lOper hour. In the unite States, rates are ofttimes near minimum wage. prudence Practices and Human Performance The FAA mandates certain positions in an airlines organizational structure, such as a security director for the airline and security coordinators at each airport, but airline management practices and philosophy usually fall outside the scope of FAA 20 regulatory authority.In Safe Skies for Tomorrow, OTA found that the effect of airline operating or management practices on airline safety, and changes in those practices, were rarely addressed in FAA safety analyses. 21 The FAAs Human Factors plan cites the influence of management shade on human performance as one area where basic research is needed. 22 If the organizational climate (i. e. , working conditions, wages, management, organizational culture, etcetera ) does not allow an individual to perform at his or her peak, it may not matter how well he or she is trained or how well designed the technology is. 3 The ATA proposal for upgrading screener standards suggests giving screeners employee benefits general in many industries (vacation, holiday, medical) that contractors often dont receive) offering to contractors the advantages of airline employment (e. g. , low-cost transit) and career opportunities to top performers providing monetary The linked Airlines approach to improving screener performance on all flights from selected airports delineates one set of management techniques (box 5-A). Another approach has been under taken by American Airlines, lthough only for its international flights. 24 American treats its international screeners as part of the American team. They are chartered as full-fledged airline employees, not employees of a contracted security agency, and enjoy the same salary levels and benefits that ticketing agents do. The educational level of entrants appears relatively high, with a few individuals having advanced degrees. There appears also to be a real opportunity for advancement within American Airlines, and not just in the security division.Before starting work, the entrants are brought to Dallas (from across the world many screeners are hired from the countries in which they will be working) for 2 weeks of training at Americans headquarters. The training includes emphasis on the screening questions as well as on what to look for on the x-ray screens. The screeners ask the standard questions as to who packed the baggage and whether anyone could have placed pitch-black in it. But they also ask general questions regarding destination and travel plans, somewhat akin to the lines of questioning performed by El Al.Indeed, American has used Israeli security consultants in designing their security system. The screeners look for a number of specific characteristics, which remain proprietary to the company. If too many of the characteristics chequer a passenger, the individuals baggage will receive very untold closer inspection. Screeners are ro- 18Most screeg for domestic flights in the United States is conducted by security Contractors, nOtairhe employC%S. lwe Osmus, op. cit. , footnote 16. u. s. Conwss, OffIce of Technology Assessment, op. it. ,fOOtiOte 7. 211bid. , p. 88. 22U. S. segment of Transportatio Federal Aviation Administration op. Cit. , fOOtnOte 9, p. 15. Ibid. 24s0 Site yack t . D* emailprotected% December 1$)90, and Homer emailprotected Chief of Sedty, American Airlines, perSOIlal COmmCatiO December 1990. 84 q Technology Against Terrorism Structuring Security tated amidst looking at x-ray screens and interviewing passengers. Periodically, security systems are tested by contractors, who choose an American employee to play a terrorist.A specific scenario is given to this impostor, and the reaction of the security personnel is noted. If they do not perform their functions, they may be subject to severe discipline, including termination. The result of the overall approach, using incentives and panic of discipline for negligence, appears to be a well-motivated and alert force. Box 5-AUAL Hi-Tech Screening United Airlines is focusing on management practices in its program, called Hi-Tech Screening, to improve the quality of pre-departure screening and the public perception of this highly visible function.Begun in 1987 at Chicago OHare and San Francisco Airpo rts, the program incorporated many of the selection and incentive move later recommended in the ATA proposal, and also attempted to integrate technology and people by reconfiguring the screening environment to make it more pleasant for screeners and passengers as well as to improve operations. Although wages are still low, successful workers have the opportunity to join the UAL organization, instead of working as contract security personnel.Improvements include direct communication links to supervisors for oversight and advice to screeners, layout designed to minimize passenger delays, and multiple cues to passengers that security measures are being taken in a professional reamer (security supervisor in an towering booth, passengers see themselves on video monitors as they go through metal detectors, signs describing procedures are clear and concise). United believes that the program has been successful to date in increasing public awareness and employee morale and competence.At Chicago, the employee attrition rate dropped by half and weapon detections and FAA test scores increased significantly (79 pct detection rate on FAA weapons tests prior to Hi-Tech and 92 pct subsequently). United has also installed Hi-Tech Screening systems in Denver, LOS Angeles, Seattle, and Washington Dunes, with plans for additive implementation in the future. SOURCE Site visit to OHare, April 1990, and Richard Davis, practicable Security, United Airlines, Jan. 3,1991.Security Equipment Currently, the FAA requires airlines to employ relatively few types of security equipment primarily x-ray devices and metal detectors. The FAA established minimum performance standards for detecting weapons and explosives, and since these technologies are radiation-establish, the FAA also requires that they carry through Federal health and safety standards . 25 There are no standards governing operator interaction with the equipment, such as the layout of controls and introduction symbology resources. At the time the FAA established x-ray and metal detector requirements (early 1970s), it had little expertise in human factors.Moreover, these technologies were relatively simple compared with aircraft cockpit and ATC consoles that the FAA had to certify without objective human-factors criteria, making humanfactors standards for security a relatively low priority. However, many behavioral experts argue that properly developed human-factors standards could improve system performance for aviation security as well as safety. In recent years, the FAA has issued regulations for security technologies-computer-controlled access at airports and explosive detection systemsthat are considerably more complex and have wider system implications than x rays and metal detectors.As has is evidenced in the explosive detection system (EDS) regulations published in September 1989 26 and the subsequent performance of TNA, the only device to date that could happen upon the FAA standards. beyo nd setting detection criteria, which are critical to the security system performance, the FAA also included requirements for throughput of the device (which is primarily an economics issuesee ch. 4) and a requirement for 100-percent automated detection decisionmaking. Several lines of reasoning could lead to a design goal of total automation, including lower operating costs over the long run een commonly the case whenever new technology is used to solve a problem, attention is focused on the positive aspects of the technologyhow effective it iswithout giving full consideration to possible new human-factors problems caused by the technology. The lack of attention to man/ machine human-factors and system operating issues Fr xmple, . ray ytms P-Y for cW. on baggage must meet tie snds set by the intellectual nourishment and Drug Administration. x54 Federal Register 36938 (Sept. 5, 1989). Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security q 85 nd possibly removing human error from the operat ing loop. However, it maybe useful, and sometimes vital, to keep the human in the operating/decisionmaking loop, especially if he or she must respond during emergency or unusual conditions. As has been shown so far in TNA tests, the false alarm rate is well preceding(prenominal) earlier goals and human intervention is required quite often. While automation, in the context of an EDS, is a useful tool, and total automation may be an understandable goal, requiring 100 percent automated functions in an EDS is not justified at this time.The E D S regulations provide an example of where input from a group such as the FAAs Human Factors Coordinating Committee could process flag potentially troublesome human-factors aspects of security regulations. Airline passenger indite, in most cases, must be fast (and consequently cursory) enough so as not to impose extravagant delays. In other security contexts, such as screening for the insider threat pen within an organization where time is not so critical, much more elaborated undercoat information and questioning is possible.A different, although overlapping, form of pen is used by law enforcement and investigatory agencies. given up pertinent data and evidence from a crime scene or threat, experts compile a profile of likely social, psychological, and physical characteristics of the criminal. However, much of the work and methodology could be transferred from one of the broad pen regimes to the other. FAA Requirements for profile-Under Federal regulations, U. S. airlines must apply a relatively simple form of passenger indite for international flights (e. g. questions regarding electronic devices), although airlines are not prohibited by FAA/DOT from conducting any form of indite at any time. Whether or not a passenger is selected for closer scrutiny, such as a manual baggage search, depends on where his passport was issued (a factor that varies based on threat intelligence) and on responses to a series of qu estions aimed at identifying potential terrorist dupes. Additionally, airlines must conduct random baggage inspections on a small percentage of otherwise unselected passengers for each flight.These requirements do not apply to domestic flights or to foreign airlines, which results in an obvious gap in protection for Americans. The fact Passenger profile In-depth questioning of all airline passengers and diminutive examin ation of each of their personal belongings and baggage is impossible in a modern deportation system. Since most of the one thousand millions of passengers that fly on U. S. airlines each year pose no security risk, targeting security resources on the small number of passengers who exhibit some elements of the threat profile is one way to increase security without clogging transportation flows. rofiling can be a valuable component of a transportation security system, providing an independent complement to hardware-based (and often more expensive) explosives and w eapons detection technologies. productive pen depends on a large support system including comprehensive intelligence networks and threat analyses, information system technology to process large databases, behavioral research and analysis, and trained and motivated screening personnel.There are two general approaches to operational indite. One compares passenger demographic and other background data (age, sex, nationality, travel itinerary, etc. ) to historic or recent intelligencederived threat profiles. The other is based on the examiners psychological assessment of the passenger, taking into account nervousness, hostility, or other suspicious characteristics. Most profiling systems currently use elements of both approaches to varying degrees. that foreign airlines that compete with U.S. airlines on international routes do not have to satisfy these requirements imposes an economic penalisation on domestic carriers and weakens their ability to compete successfully with foreign carriers, which, in addition, are usually conjuresubsidized. Domestic airlines complain, with justification, that a level playing playing issue should be established to avoid this unfair disadvantage. An option would be to compensate U. S. airlines for the additional costs, either from Federal subsidies or from the Airport Trust Fund. 7 Alternatively, foreign carriers could be required to apply similar security measures on flights landing in the United States to those demanded of U. S. carriers. The United States has forced better security practices in foreign 2% l$)7(j, Congress estiblishedaprecedent for compensating U. S. air carriers forsecuritymeasures incurred in international operatiombyautioritig nearly $10 million for fiscal years 1976-78 (Public practice of law 94-353, sec. 24). In 1982, Congress extended the authorized limit to $15 million (Public Law 97-248, sec. 24(d). Nearly this much was actually disbursed to four U. S. carriers. 84 q Technology Against Terrorism S tructuring Security revocation of landing rights of carriers from those countries in the absence of improvements. airports by threatening coordinating security management decisions and for providing a conduit for a detailed database. 30 The FAA is considering making CPSP mandatory, but a number of carriers oppose it, citing security officer vigilance problems caused by distraction by computer keyboard and display.Knowledgeable FAA and airline personnel claim that airline opposition stems mainly from the increased oversight capabilities that such a system would give the FAA CPSP would provide a detailed record of all airline profiling actions (and errors or failures) that could be used for civil penalty proceedings. Presently, the FAA oversees airline profiling procedures through random or scheduled field visits. The FAA counters that if a would-be malefactor sneaks through, CPSP also can provide documented proof that the airline followed FAA-required procedures, shifting some finan cial obligation for a profiling failure to the FAA. 1 Additionally, there is substantial U. S. airlines operating on European routes have been permitted to substitute their own profiling programs for FAA requirements. 28 Most U. S. airlines and many foreign carriers conduct more extensive profile screening than minimum FAA requirements at foreign airports and some U. S. international gateways. Some airlines train their international employees in profiling techniques while others hire contractors to administer security for their international flights.Proprietary profiling procedures used by these airlines are imitate generally on the Israeli El Al method of profiling which is more comprehensive (and intrusive) than FAA requirements and reportedly includes psychological, social, and political factors. Complaints by certain groups, such as Arab-Americans, claiming harassment, stem from carrier-initiated profiling, not Federal requirements. 29 During the past 5 years, the FAA has deve loped and tested a computer-based profiling tool aimed at potential terrorist hijackers and saboteurs.The Comprehensive Passenger Screening Profile (CPSP) is both a checklist and decision aid for field officers and a data collection system to support profiling enhancements. It encompasses the current FAA required profiling procedures plus additional factors based on a data profile of terrorists, using historical and intelligence sources. The decision process for selecting a passenger for further examination is automated through a series of mathematically weighted yes/no questions (some of which do not require passenger interviews), that the security officer responds to via a keyboard.CPSP is designed for easy modication if intelligence or data analysis indicates a need. In early 1990, the FAA offered CPSP as an option for airlines to meet profiling requirements. Continental Airlines and United Airlines have tested versions of CPSP at a few locations, and have been generally pleased with its performance, especially as a tool for centrally ho emailprotected FAA htelligence, personal communication Oct. 1*, 1990%llid. analytic value to the large data set that would come from CPSP.As discovered during TNA testing, little is know about the baseline average passenger and baggage therefore, general background data, regardless of how well CPSP works operationally, would be valuable for security planning. No names of passengers are (or legally can be) included in such a data set maintained by the Federal Government. 32 However, as hugger-mugger entities, airlines can and do maintain such lists. Other Issues for Human Factors and Profiling Research and instruction Due to security and proprietary concerns, profiling systems in place today are shrouded in secrecy.The technical aspects of their development and numeric measures of their performance are difficult to obtain, although the widespread use at airports across the world attest to airline confidence in profiling Given industry acceptance of profiling technology, the unregulated environment in which profiling systems were developed, and the potential enhanced capabilities and future needs, there is a JOBelq Director, Comorate s, COntinenM fies, rson commtication, od. 15, 1990 and Glen W- Director, XtitiOI. Ud Security, United Airlines, personal communication, Oct. 6, 1990. 31c)P. cit. , footnote 27. qzfiid. Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security q 87 role for a concerted Federal (DOT) effort in profiling R. The primary research fields of interest are in the behavioral sciences and in large database collection and analysis. A useful but neglected approach would be to investigate the role of pagan differences in establishing profiles. Since patterns of behavior considered anomalous in one culture are average in others, understanding cultural effects better could lead to more effective and, possibly, less discriminatory use of profiles. 3 Relevant behavioral research with applications f or profiling is being conducted by a number of Federal agencies, although they generally do not coordinate these research efforts. There is a need to coordinate research and experience in developing terrorist profiles among come to agencies. Also, some work is going on to establish databases of past possibilitys and known terrorists in order to help develop profiles. The FAA conducts a modest profiling research effort that produced the CPSP and is analyzing profiling field tests.However, this effort is housed in the in aviation security. It has worked with in-house experts, with other agencies, and with behavioral scientists under contract. There should be travel taken to guarantee that this institutional knowledge is not lost, due to needed secrecy or personnel turnover. There should also be an effort to bring together knowledge on profiling from the Intelligence Community, from the Federal Bureau of Investigation, from the Immigration and Naturalization Service, and from the FA A, so that all agencies may productively pool their knowledge.One way of helping assure such interagency communication would be the institution of annual interagency conferences on the topic (see ch. 3). Profiling techniques and related technologies are being added to current security R plans at the FAA Technical Center. The operational aspects of using automated profiling systems, such as data ledger entry and human/computer interaction, are similar to those of many other technologies, and could benefit from further research and development. intelligence section under the Assistant decision maker for Civil Aviation Security with no direct link to FAAs R division.Historically, the FAA pioneered the use of profiles in aviation in the late sixties and early 1970s during the upsurge of hijackings to Cuba. A team of experts under the leadership of the FAA Office of Aviation Medicine was involved in the development of the initial profiles. Limited use of profiles was made during the early 1970s and again in 1980, when immigrants from the Mariel Boatlift began hijacking aircraft to Cuba. Profiles were employed on a limited basis to help stem the wave of hijackings to Cuba by some Marielitos. In the 1970s, the FAA also developed a profile for domestic use to identify persons who might be carrying explosives or incendiary devices in checked baggage. This checked bag profile included several objective elements and was intended for use by airline personnel at ticket counters. This profile was never applied rigorously, although some of its elements were automated by at least one U. S. air carrier. Thus, the FAA has had substantial experience with developing and implementing profiles for useA near-term research need is how best to combine profiling systems with the new security technologies now in the pipeline. In fact, arguments have been made that the TNA device can only function effectively when combined with profilebased selection of baggage to inspect, since fal se alarm rates are high. This is, in fact, being done at the Gatwick tests. Presently, the profiling process results in binary decisionslet the passenger pass into the normal security process (more than 95 percent of passengers) or conduct a manual search of the passenger and his baggage. One possibility would e to expand and refine the decision outcome from profiling to provide multiple screening paths for passengers depending on the level of threat and the accessibility of advanced detection equipment (see ch. 4). A longer term research option is to investigate new technologies to enhance profiling. Rapid access in the field to Federal, international, and, possibly, private databases (i. e. , hotel, credit card) could greatly enhance capabilities. Remote sensing of internal respiration and heart rates and other biological parameters, combined with large universe of discourse databases, automated facial-recognition systems, andSsCustom offici& in the Northern Islands, a U. S. - flag territory, incorporate cultural characteristics in looking for anomalies for profding. a 88 q Technology Against Terrorism Structuring Security biometric passports, all offer new possibilities for on-the-spot psychological and physiological assessments. From past experience, cultural factors particular to the country where the event is taking place frequently influence decisionmaking by local authorities. Some observers report that U. S. fficials who were involved would, on occasion, have benefited by a more detailed knowledge of the dynamics of local social systems. For example, in some cases, although crisis management officials were supposed to be in charge of handling an incident, local cultural or political factors have resulted in the crisis being directed instead by senior office holders, who are untrained for the purpose and unable to provide the rapid decisionmaking that is often required. Some research into systematizing knowledge of relevant aspects of different soci al systems would be useful.In this area, as in profiling, the construction of appropriate databases would be of use to U. S. officials who may be called on to participate in resolving a crisis. At present, there appears to be little coordination among agencies in understanding behavioral aspects of incident management. This lack provides another argument for strengthening interagency coordination in counterterrorism (see ch. 3). Civil Liberties Security systems in general, and profiling methods in particular, trade certain freedoms (e. g. privacy) for safety. profiling methods, based on specific individual characteristics, may be derived from historical experience (e. g. , the large number of Cuban refugees who hijacked aircraft to Cuba in the early 1970s or the examples of hijacking engaged in by members of various Middle east terrorist groups). These characteristics sometimes include physical and cultural features, since these traits are the easiest indicators to verify. Often su ch subjects belong to readily distinguishable minority groups.Therefore, people who possess the characteristics in question but who have no ill intentions (obviously, the great majority) could be subjected to scrutiny that could be considered to encroach on individual freedoms. This study describes measures to meet compelling public safety interests. It is, however, beyond the scope of this study to discuss the many legal and societal civil liberties issues involved (e. g. , how much officiousness on privacy is countenanced by a compelling interest of the state? ).It is certain that the technical ability to investigate and record personal histories and characteristics and the demand for the use of such ability will greatly expand, thereby increasing the potential for crossing the fine line protecting constitutionally guaranteed individual liberties. Legislative attention will have to address the tradeoff between public safety and welfare and civil liberties. Policy Options The foll owing policy options address human factors and aviation security. 1. Enhance FAA attention to human factors in security 34 qExplicitly address aviation security in agencywide human-factors planning. The FAA has taken measures to move in this direction. Bolster human-factors expertise under the Assistant Administrator for Civil Aviation Security and the Aviation Security Research and Development Service at the FAA Technical Center by adding professionals to their respective staffs, especially in light of plans to increase staff levels of both sections significantly during the succeeding(a) few years. One such professional has already been added. Incident Management Human factors also play a role in managing incidents abroad.When U. S. citizens are held hostage in a foreign country, the United States often plays a role in resolving the incident. Some foreign security officials are trained in the United States under assistance programs. But the United States also may participate activ ely, as it did in responding to a number of airline hijackings in the 1980s. q e follo r=omenhtiom included in earlier drafts of this repofi has already been implemented by tie FAA q Add a designee of the Assistant Administrator for Civil Aviation Security to the FAAs Human Factors Coordinating Committee.Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security q 89 2. Consider conducting R on combining passenger profiling techniques with other security technologies. 3. Give consideration to methods for leveling the playing field when imposing requirements on U. S. carriers but not on competing foreign ones. 4. Give consideration to civil liberties issues 5. stemming from Federal aviation security requirements. Coordinate behavioral research into profiling and incident management being conducted in the Federal Government. Arrange periodic interagency conferences on related topics.

Apperance vs Reality In the Great Gatsby

The roaring mid-twenties were the times of uplifteder wages, new technologies and extravagant parties to celebrate after the withering war. It was the time of great economic prosperity and many people became flush and richesy. With this all happening many people lived in an illusionary arena, where totally few could see humans. Being successful during these times had no issue to do with hard realise but rather involved false happiness, graduate(prenominal) social status and materialistic objects. F. Scott Fitzgerald implies in The Great Gatsby that Underneath those who erupt to be living a life of perfection, there may be a lack ofncontentess in reality.In Scott. F Fitzgeralds The Great Gatsby, the characters of Jay Gatsby, Daisy Buchanan, and incision Carraway all reveal that the certain ports of their lives do not match the reality. When a individual becomes so caught up in their appearance they tend to freeze just about the reality approximately them. In the novel The Great Gatsby, Jay Gatsby portrays that the appearance of his life is unlike true reality. James Gatz grew up in a very poor family from North Dakota, and after he became wealthy he changed his name to Jay Gatsby to hide from his erstwhile(prenominal) appearance. Gatsby appears to be thisIndividual who has a successful and concluded life because of all his wealth, but in reality he is a fraud. His wealth was not inherited from a wealthy family nor was it growed through a sincerely hard working job that but he became a bootlegger and gets his wealth from illegally selling bonds. Gatsby is unable to see past reality cant repeat the past? Why of year you can? (116).Gatsby has a vision of re-gaining the relationship Daisy and him once had. He believes that since hes made a name for himself and has become very wealthy, he now has everything he needs for Daisy to come backto him. Gatsby is blind to the reality that his dream is long gone and that his past can never be amply repe ated. The future has brought other factors such as being unify and his notes being done illegally. He ordain never be able to repeat the relationship they once had when they were younger he act to recapture Daisy, and for a time it looks as though her will succeed. that he must fail, because of his inability to separate the i grapple from the real. It appears that since Gatsby is socially accredited in Daisys world with his wealthy and popular persona and that the write out they have for from each oneother still exists, he now has everything he needs to gain Daisy back. Since they already have strong do it for each other. However, once Daisy soon discovers that Gatsby isnt that man he puts out to be, and the pouf and protection she feels with Tom because of his wealth and status is much more heavy to her than the love and sacrifice Gatsby shows toward her. Daisy Buchanan married Tom Buchanan in spite of her crushed leather with living a wealthy and glamorous lifestyle. E ven though she realizes her maintain is having an affair she still stays with him, convinced that her money will work as a distraction and deposit her happy. notch discovers that her whole carless world revolves around this illusion that money makes everything well-favoured, even if its not. From the moment Daisy was natural she was brought into a glamourized world of wealth. Once shes older, she falls for Tom Buchanan and the money he represents, leading her to marry him. She feels that the wealthy lifestyle she endures with Tom will bring them eternal happiness and solve all of their potential problems. Regarding her young lady Pammy, Daisy says And I hope shell be a fool- thats the best thing a girl can be in this world, a beautiful little fool. (fitzgerald 21).This statement shows that shewishes that her daughter will grow up to be fleeceable and beautiful so she doesnt have to worry about all the problems that occur in life. Daisy herself is beautiful, however, she is no t a fool and is fully aware of her husbands infidelities. She feels that if she was naive to this situation, she would be able to live happily in her life filled with beauty and wealth and would not have to deal with these kinds of problems. Unfortunately for Daisy, she realizes that a marriage lacking love and trust has erupted in her life and assumes that her money will over shadow this problem and make everything better.Daisy seems to beliving a perfect, beautiful life because of her wealth and high social crime syndicate. However, she soon comes to the conclusion that there is an emptiness in her core group that her money will never be able to fulfill. When a person is aware to the reality they began to realize how non important appearance is. The character of gouge Carraway is neighbours with the popular Gatsby and is exposed to his mansion that holds all of his extravagant parties. ding demonstrates a character who realizes that the upper class world isnt all what it seems . snick perceives that the people of new yorks upper class live delightful and wonderful lives due to their weath.When he eventually becomes part of the upper class world (having relation to Daisy and befriending Gatsby), Nick comes to the conclusion that wealth causes more vilify and corruption than good. Nick begans to realize that after all the sacrifice and love Gatsby has done for his cousin Daisy, she still chooses to be with her unfaithful husband theyre a rotten crowd. Youre worth the whole damn thumping put together(Fitzgerald 162).After None of Gatsbys friends, as well as t he many people who attended his parties, showed up to his funeral, Nick discovers that he no longer wants to be apart of a worldcontaining such shallowness and selfishness. Nick sees life now as it is. Nick dedues that Gatsby is both a racketeer and an incurable romantic, whose ill-gotten wealth has been acquired soley to gain prominence in the sophisticated, moneyed world of Daisys circle. Nick b ecomes to realize how naive his friend Jay Gatsby is to reality and how hes allowing his money and appearance to canvass over. In the end, even the greatest of the characters in the Great Gatsby are conformed by their appearance. They may appear to live in such perfection and wealth but in reality money cant bribe happiness.

Ethnocentricity Essay

The cultures of tribe in different countries can affect the trade strategies that a guild will use as it enters vernal multinational markets. The company has to consider vary many factors of the new international, market place, well-nigh of these are political factors, social factors, economic and technological factors. Looking at the social cultural factors ethnocentricity is a major(ip) factor curiously if the new marketplace is in a country with diverse cultures.This is a major challenge because near of these the dandy unwashed hold so much to these cultures that it is real difficult to make them adopt your harvest-home and your marketing strategies. To enter a market like the Japanese market one must see to it that they do not consume separate growths like pork as an example because thats some of their cultural beliefs This means that in send to enter such markets one has to understand the practices of the people in these regions, their cultures and separate influ ences like customs ethnic differences attitudes towards the growthions or services e. . c.The cultural activities of these people desires and their likes and preferences, these equip the individuals of the communities with certain value systems and on the other pass fix individuals and the community to comply with certain demands and participate in certain activities. In U. K for example a large population like football and most of them are at least attached to teams in their neighborhood i. e. Manchester Everton etc. This should be used as a good state for marketing products and distribution.Britons also have other tastes and preferences that differ with other people i. e they are not all that attached to rap medication unlike the Japanese and Chinese who have their indigenous types of music the British like rhythms and blues. Some of these diverse likes and preferences will affect the planning and the channel of distributions that will be used. The Japanese people for exam ple produce most of their goods especially electronics locally using cheap labor and locally visible(prenominal) materials making it hard for a foreign product to penetrate that finicky market.This should be a challenge to the marketer to introduce products that are lofty I this particular market and price them lower than the competing brands and use bustling distribution systems by the use of many levels of distribution probably the tercet level distribution channel i. e(manufacturer wholeseller-retaillet-consumer) so that the product can cave in all people in the target market.The French on the other hand are the direct opposite of the Britons in culture and therefrom in determine to penetrate the French market a company should adopt products that have some attributes attached to them i. e social classes. This is because the French culture is that they believe that they are way above the rest and that their finish is the best hence the type of product that fits them is a prestigious product hence to penetrate this market there is need to position the product ahead of the rest as a market leader.In order lure many people to adopt the product. Ethnocentricity has also a great impact on the type of media to use in communication of the product preferences to people of diverse cultures i. e the way the company will denote its products and services in Britain will be different from the way the product will be advertised in Britain and the advertising media to use. The advertising medias cheat from print visual, auditory sensation- visual, billboards and small adverts done in between movies i. in between football matches. In France and Britain the best media to use are the print media and audio visual like T. Vs. However, billboards can also be used especially if they are to be set up in roundabouts in towns to move the people on the product. China and Japan on the other hand need entirely advertisements over the Radio because this is the best media to reach a large number of people.

Nature of Philosophy Essay

philosophy * Comes from the 2 Greek words philos -love and sophia -wisdom * tasks that requires a overturn effort to seek the truth. * The act of questioning or wanting to drive in initiates philosophy, and most of the time we relate philosophy to thinking. * Knowledge of all things, with this ultimate causes, aquired through the use of reasoning * Is the intense and vitup successiontive interrogative of beliefs and assumptions Philosopher * Lover of knowledge * A person who seeks knowledge for its own saki and not for any other motive. * Philosophers examine questions dealing with lifes most important aspects.* Raphael (1994) describes philosophy as essentially divided into ii branches the ism of knowledge and the ism of practice. * The Philosophy of knowledge is attentive to critical examination of assumptions ab issue matters of fact and argument. Included in this branch are epistemology (study of knowledge), metaphysics (the study of ultimate reality), the philosop hy of science, philosophy of judgement and philosophical logic. * Philosophy of practice, on the other hand, focuses on critical examination of assumptions about norms or values and includes ethics, social and political philosophy, and the philosophy of the law.It is the Philosophy of practice, particularly good philosophy, that provides a ground acetify for discussion of legion(predicate) another(prenominal) of the troubling issues facing nurses. Objectives of Philosophy * To seek the deepest explanations of existence and the nature of being. It specifically uses reasoning to show its life uniform scope in deriving explanations Spiritual / phantasmal influences * Historically, many of the supreme religious institutions made judgements about the origin and essence of healing and exposit those who would hold positions as legitimate healers.* Nevertheless, treat insome digit has existed in every culture, and has been influenced by eldritch beliefs, religious practices, and related heathen values. Gender influences * In every culture, women have been healers * As a emergence of the perception that women are more humane and more affectionateness by nature, they have been viewed as naturally endowed with nursing talents. * Every charr has, at one time or another of her life, charge of the individual(prenominal) health of somebody, whether child or invalid- every woman is a nurse. nightingale ANCIENT / PRESOCRATIC (7th century B. C) * Greek thinkers, called themselves wise men still of humility.* PYTHAGORAS- * One of the Greek thinkers, wanted to call himself a person who ripe love wisdom or a philosopher. * From then on, the Greek use the word philosophy for love of wisdom and philosopher as a buff of knowledge. * In the ancient times the position of healer was practiced by those thought to have special spiritual gifts. * When the reigning deity had a feminine, bisexual or androgynous nature, women were leaders in the healing arts. * As the wor ld became a harsher place, and the Gods assumed a masculine nature, womens single-valued function as independent, primary healer was taken away The Early Christian Era.* Early Christian nurses were frequently women of high social status and oftentimes became independent practitioners. * When religious belief moved toward a single anthropoid God, womens healing role changed from that of sacred healer to subservient caregiver. MIDIEVAL / plaza AGES * Christian scholars and Arab philosophers were the first to create a direct link of Philosophy to Theology, one of its main inspirations in the Christian faith which became a foreplay to reason. * During this time, monastcism and other religious groups offered the nevertheless opportunities for women to pursue careers in nursing.* Much of hospital nursing was carried out by repentant women and widows called sisters and by manful nurses called brothers. * Deaconesses, matrons, and temp ad-lib nursing orders were among the nonionis ed groups that had religious foundations and offered nusing services. * Much of hospital nursing was carried out by repentant women and widows called sisters and by male nurses called brothers. * Deaconesses, matrons, and secular nursing orders were among the organized groups that had religious foundations and offered nusing services.* Women who entered nursing orders donated their property and wealth to the Church and donated thier lives to service-believing that charity was like with love * The term empirical relates to knowledge gained through the process of manifestation and experience. * Consequently, people were more likely to seek healing through religious intervention since the position of the Church was that only God and the devil had the part to either cause illness or promote healing * The crusades, which experience in 1096 and lasted nearly 200 years, brought many changes in health and population.* In response to the compelling need, military nursing orders were formed. These orders draw large numbers of men into the field of nursing. * During the Middle Ages, the status of women also declined. In many ways this was directly related to church doctrine. * St. Thomas Aquinas, known as the Angelic Doctor wrote that one should only make use of a necessary object, woman, who is needed to persevere the species or to provide food or drinkwoman was created to be mans helper, but her fantastic role is in conception since for all other purposes men would be better assisted by other men. * St.Jerome remarked that women is the gate of devil, the path of wickedness, the stab of the serpent, in the world a perilous object * It was a habitual religious view that women were essentially evil by nature. The pain of childbearing was believed to be punishment for Eves transgression, and served the purpose of reminding women of their original implike nature. * Although the medical profession was officially sanctioned by the church, and male physician s were line of descent to be trained in the university conformting, there was scant scientific knowledge.They utilise bloodletting, astrology, alchemy, and incantations * Peasant women wereoften the only healers for people who had no doctors and suffered bitterly from exiguity and disease * These folk healers had extensive knowledge about cures that had been handled down for generations via oral tradition.* These women developed an extensive understanding of bones and muscles, herbs, drugs, and midwifery * This atmosphere set the stage for Church-sanctioned crimes against women in the form of the witch hunts. * Any women who treated an illness, steady if she aplied a soothing salve to the diseased skin of her child, was likely to be acused of witchcraft.* If the treatment failes, she was sough to have cursed the patient. If the treatment succeeded, she was believed to be in consort with the devil * Although women were permitted to practice midwifery, these women were in danger o f being impeach of witchcraft if anything went wrong with either mother or baby forward-looking (16th- 18 century A. D * During this period, Rene Descartes was known as the Father of modern Philosophy, to his philosophy of rationalism and empiricism * RATIONALISM- is a philosophical doctrine that specifically uses resoning and proof in explaining reality EMPIRICISM regards experience as the only source of knowledge,for it was during this time that the abundance of knowledge in science became a challenge for all philosophers to prove their discoveries and breakthrough to the aid of the aforementioned doctrines reincarnation and the Reformation * The sixteenth century heralded the beginning of two enormous movements the renaissance and the rehabilitation. * The renaissance produced an intellectual rebirth that began the scientific era * The reformation was a religious movement precipitated by the widespread abuses that had become a part of Church life and doctrinal disagreement among religious leaders.* The scientific community made advanced in mathematics and the sciences. * Rene Descartes is credited with proposing a theory that quickly altered philosophic beliefs about the separation of mind and body. * He proposed that the universe is a physical thing, and that everything in the universe is like a machine, which can be analyzed and understood. * Based on Descartes work cartesian philosophy began to replace religious beliefs related to the physical and spiritual beliefs of humankind. * As a direct result, a separation was created between the acts of caring and curing in the healing arts.* The reformation produced a split in the church. * A struggle between Catholic and Protestant groups spread crosswise Europe, as a result, Catholicism lost its power in many countries. * Laws and cusotms in Protestant countries discouraged the humane care of the downtrodden and the weak modern (20th century) * The existence of a massive variety of doctrines of phi losophy strenghtened its grasp in seeking the truth. * Among these are the doctrines of * Karl Marx- Marxism * Immanuel Kant- Kantianism * Jean Paul Sartre- Existentialism The modern era * Florence Nightingale became a model for all nurses.She was a nurse, statistician, sanitarian, social reformer, and scholar. * she was politically astute, intelligent, and single-minded. * Although she was opposed to using church affiliation as a beat for admision to nursing programs, her religious beliefs were evident in her dealings with students, whom she admonished to work, work, work, because if there is no cross, there is no crown * Another of nursings great modern leaders is Lavinia Lloid Dock * She was concerned with the many problems plaguing nursing, warning that male dominance in the health field was the major problem confronting the nursing profession.

Business Leadership in Enron Essay

During the expansion plan, the debt acquired by Enron had increased substantially. The reason for this was that by return additional debt it would increase the companys leverage and harm its assurance rating. The alternative solution was to seek immediate payment from external graceors willing to invest in specific entities. When these entity was created, it could then borrow the capital separately from the browse company whilst maintaining Enrons debt ratio and avoiding it being recorded in the ratio sheet. 2. 3The Special Purpose Entities (SPEs)In order to cope with its growing pile of business, Enron undeniable a mechanism that could borrow an ever increasing total of gold but yet maintained an acceptable debt/equity ratio. Enron succeeded in hiding its debt by resorting to off-balance sheet financing. (Journal of Management Research, 2003a. ). Enron saw a originative use of special-purpose entities (SPEs) similar as that to the GasBank. Enron exploited this immature ac counting welkin which used the SPE as on off-balance sheet item, to keep liabilities and assets of the entities separated from Enrons statements.The SPEs became a convenient vehicle to unload losing trading contracts and to borrow money from outside for Enron. According to (GAO,2002) A business may utilize a SPE for accounting purpose, but these transactions must still be subjected to certain(p) regulations. (Journal of Management Research, 2003b. ) This was initially a temporary solution for temporary cash flow problems. Enron later used SPE partnership under 3% hulk to hide had bets it had made on speculative assets of the partnerships in return for IOUs backed by Enron stock as collateral (more than $1billion by 2002). In November 1997, Calpers wanted to cash out of JEDI and in order to keep JEDI afloat, Enron needed a new 3% partner. It then created another partnership Chewco to deal out Calpers stake in JEDI for $383million. (Deakin & Konzelmann, 2004) Enron plans to give ba ck little(a) term loan to Chewco to permit tit to to buy out Calpers stake.

Poetry Analysis If by Rudyard Kipling

face 113 9 November 2012 Poetry Analysis by Rudyard Kipling If As I contemplate this meter, Iget a sense of bread and butters challenges and how slightlybody discharge overcome those who refuse to takeaccountability for their own actions. Considering the poem using transport of feeling, I wonder whether it is existence told from the point ofview of Rudyard Kipling or not. Is If the story of Kipling himself? Is it an ideal he aspired to or something he deliver the sinceres? If he didattain it, is it something he attained and knew he attained it, or something he attained and button up didnt realize it?Perhaps the answersto some of those questions argon beyond the scope of this paper, exclusively Kiplings life history tramp help us understand the poem more completely. Kipling was born in Bombay, India, in 1856. He unceasingly had tales that he was writing for children, including his own children(Poetry Foundation). deplorably one of his children died at the age of eight een, fighting the Irish Guards (Bhaskart, Rao). Kipling himself suffered bullying increase up and was often punished by his parents.This poem expresses the importance of an unmarried taking and accepting the responsibility for their own livesincluding theirmistakesand not blaming others. The poem has deuce important les intelligences. The first is that we are all equal. fathert institutionalise yourself preceding(prenominal) whatever(prenominal)one else, but know that you are just as good as everyone else, so dont let anyone else put themselves above you. The second is that you should confide in yourself, pull down when everyone dubietys you. Dont believe in lies people say rough youor about anyone else. announce the truth, believe the truth, and be comport truthfully, not matter what those around you do.These lessons come from the point of view of a father instructing his son naturally, we could too look at it as coming from the point of view of any older opus to any y ounger manan emotional or spiritual father-son kindbut it seems the intent of the author was decease that this poem was directed to his physical son. This poem is a beautiful personal goal and an inspiration for anyone who wishes to be a better individual it acts as light on a dark night. It is exactly the kind of talk a father major power give to his son about growing into a good man.People sometimes talk about becoming productive members of society, but Kipling seems to take a different approach in this poem. Making one of of all your win and risking it on one turn of pitch-and-toss, and then losing it all and having to start again at your beginnings (lines 17-19)this kind of encouragement hardly seems like its grow in productivity being the measure of a man. Instead, Kipling talks about the importance of making the right choices, and how those choices can ask a huge effect on someones life.The poem also says to have confidence in your actions and to not allow anyone to s ay that you cannot do it. Dont let anyone push you down, Kipling says, or doubt your competence, and dont let those people stop you from grasp your goals. If you can dream and not make dreams your master talks about daring to dream moreover not letting that dream control your life (Paul, Halsall). Accept your dreams as yours however, dont mistreat others to get t here. Again using lines 17-19 as our evidence, we see that Kipling also suggests that we must always learn from our mistakes and not edit them.Line 20 describes his interpretation of this kind of behavior Never breathe a word about your loss. We all have a lot to learn. We can learn from bad choices, by not committing the same mistake again, but complaining about our mistakes or our losses does no one any good. If there are roadblocks in your path of life, it is okay to make adjustments to your tendency and sometimes even to make U-turns however, use it as learning a lesson for what is to come If you can bear to hear t he truth youve talk misshapen by knaves to make a trap for fools, Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken,And stoop and build em up with worn-out tools. (13-16) The most important lesson here is to never give up. It is very hard to get guts on your feet after life has beaten you into the ground. If circumstances throw you off, get back on your feet and dont let that cheat you out of reaching your goals. Instead, put all the broken pieces together to make you a stronger person. When you are stronger it is easier to encounter lifes challenges. In twain sections, the poem also talks about recognizing the truth and speaking the truth, and how the truth can concern both you and those around you.In the first, Kipling addresses the mindset he wanted his son to have when doubts and lies were directed at him If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you, But make allowance for their doubting too If you can seem and not be tired by waiting, Or being be about, dont deal in li es, Or being hated, dont give way to hating, And unless dont look too good, nor talk too wise. (3-8) Believe in yourself, Kipling says, even when everyone doubts you dont believe the lies people say about you or anyone.The second section that deals with honesty deals more with a person being honest with himself If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster And treat those two impostors just the same If you can bear to hear the truth youve spoken Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools. (11-14) Kipling continues this theme in the fourth stanza If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue, / Or walk with Kings, nor lapse the common touch. Strive to be successful, but dont let being successful fool you. Continue to help others and be smooth to them.Dont get lost in the world of money and luxury. second others who need you. Dont be selfish and concentrate hardly on your needs and wants (Paul, Halsall). We might use the phrase today, Be rightful(a) to yourself. As Shakespeare in one of his plays had a father (Polonium) advise his son (Laertes) This above all to thine own self be true, / And it must follow, as the night the day, / Thou canst not then be false to any man (Hamlet 1. 3. 7882). Being kind and true to yourself, your family or anyone that walks in your life, can bring you many rewards.My analysis of this poem might be different from other analysis that you may have read, but it is my consciousness of it and how I took this poem and put it on my life. Kipling was very realistic and clear in his words, and everyone can learn something from it. This poem was written in 1910 and it still applies today. No matter how many years have passed since it was written, it can always be applied to anyone, anywhere, and anytime. This poem, in general, is about living by what is often called the golden rule Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. hazard about the bad you dont want for yourself and dont do it to others.Above all oddsand above his t roubled childhoodRudyard Kipling became a courageous and honest man. He knew how hard life can be, so he wrote this poem to his son teaching him solutionsto lifes problems. That was the main(prenominal) reason he wrote this poem He wanted his son to live on a good man (poetry foundation). According to Kipling, getting through this life with all the challenges, good or bad, and making the right choices and being majestic of yourself, being happy with your winnings, and learning from your mistakes these will help you achieve the beaver reward to be a man (Geofrey, Wansell).Work Cited Geofrey, Wansell. The Remarkable Story tramp Rudyard Kiplings If. Daily Mail. 15 Feb. 2009. Web. 8 Nov. 2012. Paul, Halsall. Modern History root Book. Rudyard Kipling If. July 1998. Web. 8 Nov. 2012. Poetry Foundation. Web. 8 Nov. 2012. Rao, K. Bhaskara. Rudyard Kipling. Critical Survey Of Long Fiction, quarter Edition (2010) 1-7. Literary Reference Center Plus. Web. 7 Nov. 2012.

Defining Social Problems

A distinction is made between the comment of a affectionate puzzle and sociological line of work by Peter Worsley (1972). The last menti aned refers to the problem of explaining tender behaviour in monetary value of a sociological theory, whilst the former is some(a) piece of well-disposed behaviour that causes public grinding and or private misery and calls for collective action to solve it.The instruction of affable problems is a complex and very controversial undertaking. Broadly speaking, this is non understandable to the average layman whose impressions of what constitutes a friendly problem is heavily established by the rhetoric of his/hers everyday social discourse and indeed the classification of acts or touchs as social problems seem to be a relatively simple exercise.It is becoming more and more evident by present day sociologists and social scientists alike the complexities involved in defining, identifying and classifying a social situation as a social p roblem. This process has far-reaching implications on the focus, scope and projected recommendations of studies conducted of a particular social situation. There ar two major conceptualizations of defining a social situation as a social problem. The first is centered around the self-explanatory manakin public suasion approach.This approach contends that a social problem cannot experience for a golf-club unless it is recognized by that society to live (Blumer, 1971) the inference here is that it is the members of the society that define and construct their social existence and that via socialization these interpretations of societal phenomena and value consensus is conveyed to the offspring. Individuals and social situations that do not accommodate to the norms and values of society are often viewed as social problems.In Blumers comment of social problem he uses a broad concept of society entirely fails to further refine his definition. Merton writing in modern-day neigh borly Problems also utilizes in his definition of what is a social problem the broad and in my opinion ambiguous term muckle. His definition of social problems is as follows a social definition exists when there is a sizeable discrepancy between what is and what people think ought to be. sensation discovers that each society has their own conceptualizations and interpretations of their social world and furthermore as contemporary sociologists, namely M.G. Smith and his pluralist model of society (adapted from the research of J. Furnival of Burma), sire suggested different fractions of society stand competing and contrasting ideologies. The use of such terms suggests social union and cohesion of meanings and oversimplifies the above mentioned complexities of societies. A branching nurture of thought emerging from the public-opinion approach in the defining of social problems is in my opinion the quantitative approach.Perhaps realizing the aforementioned pitfalls of the definitio n proposed by Blumer and Merton some sociologist have attempted to further refine their definitions by assigning a seemingly quantitative value to them. Sheppard and Vosss definition is critiqued by Manis Contemporary Social Problems They define a social problem as a social condition which a large coincidence of society see as undesirable or in need of attention Here the quantitative term large proportion of society refines the initial term society and people utilized in the definition of Blumer and Merton respectively.Julian writing in Social Problems, 10th edition, too in his definition utilizes the term solid proportion of people, Kornblum includes the term most people and likewise riddled and Myers in their book The Natural History of a social problem, American Sociological Review quantifies his definition by added the term a considerable matter of people. Though the inclusion of some additional factor concentrates the boilers suit definition of what is a social problem it placid does not launch a full representation of the other forces at work that read to a social condition being classified as a social problem.We have moved from the ambiguity of the term society to verbalism that its the majority who decide or define social problems. The supporters of the public opinion approach contend that this approach limits the subjectivity of the researcher. Turner and Beeghley believe that by relying on the publics conceptualization of what constitutes a social problem that the sociologist remain electroneutral and value-free thereby playing a passive kind of than active persona in the process of defining social problems, since he/she is unable to claver his values, morals and ethnics.Gross dismisses the proposed objective rational proposed by the supporters of the public-opinon approach. He believes that for the sociologist raze to interpret a public response to a social situation as negative or positive, good or bad is in itself a value judgmen t This method of defining social problems is not as value free and objective as Beeghley and Tuner insinuate. If one is to speak of the majority, then what of the minority. In all fairness some public-opinion supporters have attempted to address this aspect of the debate around the definition of social problems.Sheppard and Voss have included in their definition the point that not just now is a social problem defined by the large proportion of society but by authorityful elements of it who see a social condition as undesirable and in need of attention. Julian makes an self-generated juxtaposition of the words to further develop this point. In his definition he contends that a social problem is so defined when a large number of people or a number of satisfying people agree that the condition violates an accepted value or standard.It confuses the definition somewhat since one is unable to determine whether the values of the majority are the ones violated by the social condition and it is and so defined as a social problem or if a social problem is so defined because the accepted values of the powerful (assumption here is that individuals who deal out the aforesaid(prenominal) social status or class have the same values) have been threatened. In the book, Defining Social Problems, there is considerable depict to suggest that power groups play a significant role in the defining of social problems.Here the writer contends, and correctly so, that a social problem can exist for a number of years and still not be classified or ac cognizeledged as a social problem A social problem is said to exist when an influential group asserts that a legitimate social condition alter a large group of people is a problem that whitethorn be remedied by collective action. This introduces the concept that social problems are subjective, value-laden and culturally informed a point contested by Manis.Furthermore its the influence of the power groups derived from their streng th, status or sheer number of people that have significantly squeeze on social policy at the national level. The example granted was centered around the hysteria of the milk cartoon kids. There arose in the 1950s in the USA an outcry against the seemingly stark increase in the number of kidnappings. This caused a mass hysteria and this social problem was deemed acute and exacting enough to warrant an increase in police surveillance at schools. The situation was not a real social condition but it was considered as such.This is one of the primary concerns of Manis whereby subjectivity in the definition of a social problem may lead to falsehoods. He suggests rather an objective approach which he labels the knowledge values of science. He associate social facts to values and devises an approach to defining social problems based on intrinsic values, contextual values and social responsibility values. By utilizing his method, he contends, ensures objective results by the sociologist. Though not part of the Marx theory, the labeling theory in this case exists alongside and supports the theory that power groups play a significant role in defining social problems.Howard Becker was instrumental in the study of the labeling theory. Pierre Bordeaux, a Marxist, studied the education system extensively and acknowledges the magnate of the powerful to impose their definition of reality on others. The controversy surround the definition of social problems is still going strong. Some may subscribe to why is it important to understand how a social situation is classified as a social problem. The implementation of social policies affects everyone and some policies may not always be to our benefit.For example the Mass Marriage cause in Jamaica looked to encourage couples to marry because some British sociologists thought that single-parent families were having obstinate effects on their children and this was considered a problem. Through the research of dedicated Caribbe an sociologist we know differently. In conclusion, I adapt the view points of Merton and Roberts, Contempory Social Problems, that social problems transfigure among societies and it varies in the same society among social groups and from time to time, since both the social realities and the social norms differ and change. Fuller and Myers to develop a rather meet definition of a social problem. They wrote Every social problem thus consists of an objective and a subjective definition. The objective condition is a falsifiable condition which can be checked as to the existence and order of magnitude by impartial and trained observers. The subjective definition is the awareness of certain individuals that the condition is a threat to cherished values.

Evidence Based Practice Essay

The chase ssion of this assignment attempts to critically appraise the venUS III randomized defend trial (RTC) published in the British Medical Journal. As a student/health divvy up worker who is new to critical appraisal I am aw atomic number 18 that I do non fully register close to of the calculations involved in reporting of findings, however Greenhalgh (2006) argued, all you truly need to know is what the best test is to apply in inclined circumstances, what it does and what might affect its validity/appropriateness.When caring for longanimouss it is essential that health share Professionals are using current best dress. To determine what this is they must be able to read explore, as non all research is of the alike(p) character or cadence therefore Health lot Professionals should not al single take research at face value simply beca recitation it has been published (Cullum and Droogan, 1999 Rolit and Beck, 2006). I am completing this assignment to cultivate the skills at alter me to effectively assess the validity of research that may shape my fare. in that location are numerous tools available to help reviewers to critique research studies (Tanner 2003). I behave elected to use the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) tool. I chose CASP as it is simple, directive and appropriate to quantitative research. The research article had a clear concise and easily understandable title and abstract. Titles should be 10/15 words long and should clearly identify for the lector the target of the guide (Connell Meehan, 1999). Titles that are too long or too in brief can be confusing or misleading (Parahoo, 2006).From the abstract the reader should be able to determine if the look at is of interest and whether or not to continue reading (Parahoo, 2006). The author(s) qualifications and job can be a effective indicator into the researcher(s) know leadge of the area under investigation and ability to direct the appropriate questions (Co nkin Dale, 2005). The authors of the venUS III trial were from a range of schoolman and clinical backgrounds and are considered experts in their fields.The VenUSIII RTC clearly toughened out its objective to consider the clinical effectiveness of weekly lofty frequency ultrasonography on hard to heal venous offshoot ulcers, (hard to heal was defined). In cases where participants had more than one venous fork ulcer the largest ulcer would be tracked if sonography give-and-take was allocated this site genuine the manipulation. Outcomes to be considered where clearly outlined and method of measurement/collection defined. The sketch screened 1488 batch with subdivision ulcers and 337 people became participants (22. %) Participants were randomised and evenly distri saveed, 168 to ultrasound therapy (dependant variable) addition standard guard (experimental group) and 169 to standard wish only (control group) This is reported as macrocosm the largest trial undertaken on th e subject of therapeutic ultrasound for pain healing and earlier studies are referenced in support this statement. The study was cross- fractional, its population was taken from two community and district cling to led services as well as hospital outpatient clinics.The 12 care settings used where taken from both rural and urban settings. A inviolable stress is one that is representative of the population from which it was selected (Gay 1996) Venous leg ulcers range rise sharply with maturate with an estimated 1 in 50 people over the era of 80 developing venous leg ulcers (NHS choices 2012). The age of the participants in the study ranged from 20-98 years old, however the median age general was 71. 85 and the mean age was 69. 44 years old crossways the study, well below the age range where venous leg ulcers are almost seen.The assignment of participants treatment was adequately randomised treatment was dodgely allocated 168 to ultrasound therapy plus standard care and 16 9 to standard care only. Randomisation was conducted by an independent agency (York trials Unit) The lack of abrasion bias was a strong positive for the venUS III trial, it had a low loss to follow up rate. The nurses providing treatment where not projection screen to which treatment had been allocated, this may impact on construct validity as in round cases it is suggested that control subjects are compensated in some way by healthcare staff or family for not receiving research intervention (Barker 2010).Nurses who were blind were employed to trace the ulcers. Participating patients were not blind to the treatment/s. As one of the calculated outcomes was patients perceptions of health, assessed by a questionnaire (SF-12) it is conceivable to conceive that this judging may have been influenced by the patients awareness of the treatment type they were receiving thus creating the possibility for assessment bias. Construct validity may alike be impacted on peoples behaviours as a receipt to being observed or to the treatment because they believe it will have a positive effect. Barker 2010) Healing date was assessed remotely by independent assessors who where blind to the treatment allocation this guards against assessment bias. Overall both treatment groups were equal in size. Both treatment groups had an almost equal average age of study participants, this is important because inequality in age between the groups would represent a heterogeneous population (Barker 2010). Venous leg ulceration is more common in woman than men in those below 85 year of age (Moffat 2004) the trial participants had a female majority.Probably the weakest element of the study was the probability of performance bias. Standard care comprised of low adherent dressings and quaternion-layer bandaging that was lofty compression, reduced compression or no compression depending upon the participants tolerance. Any sorts to the regime where put down and where made at the discretion of the treating clinician. Standard care was practiced in accordance with local protocol and could have varied between locations the quality of standard care given may be considered to be a confounding variable.Surveys of reported practice of leg ulcer care by nurses have demonstrated that knowledge often falls far short of that which is ideal (Bell 1994, Moffat 2004, Roe 1994) and that there is a wide variation in the nursing management of people with leg ulcers in the United body politic (UK) (Elliot 1996, Moffat 2004, Roe 1994). Large variation in healing rates gibe to trial centre is a further indicator that standard care is so variable that it potentially affects the reliability of results.No treatment faithfulness checks were undertaken and no observation regime beyond usual practice of the treating nurses practice was implemented despite nurses being new to ultrasound application. Nurses were deemed qualified after one day of training, these nurses where then besides con sidered competent to train other local nurses who would be providing treatment. The ultrasound treatment given during the venous III trial did not give any surplus effect on ulcer healing or reoccurrence rate and it did not affect quality of life.As the study only looked at one ultra sound regime extrapolation of the results was not possible, a between-subjects designed study may have provided data that was of further function. Treatment effect was mensurable precisely the primary outcome measured was the time that the venous leg ulcer took to heal, this was measured in days and adjustments were made in browse to account for baseline ulcer area (larger ulcer would be pass judgment to take longer to heal than smaller ulcers).A fully recovered(p) ulcer was clearly defined and the ulcers were photographed every four weeks, at the accuse of healing and seven days after full healing has occurred, assessment of the ulcer was completed by two blind independent assessors and where mand atory a third assessor was used if outcome was inconclusive. In some cases no photographs were available for patients in this case the treating nurse assessed healing date, no explanation why photographs would not be available is given. 7. 8% of the sample were assessed by an unblinded nurse this presented some risk of assessment bias.The trial also considered how many patients had fully healed ulcers within 12 months. Reduction in ulcer size was measured by area, by a blinded nurse who took acetate traces of the ulcers every four weeks the method of which was considered to be faithful and reliable and its provenance clearly referenced. Quality of life was also measured with a standardised questionnaire (SF-12) which looked at both physical and mental elements. As there is no induction to support the use of ultrasound therapy in addition to standard treatment therefore no current change in practice is indicated and standard practice should continue.The study reported epochal hete rogeneity in healing rates among the treatment centres. sum totals that treated the most patients produced better healing overall, if there is a correlation between hatful of patients treated and positive outcomes this hypothesis has the potential to impact upon the way care is delivered in the future. The trial considered not only medical outcomes but also considered changes in patient quality of life (both physical and mental). Beauchamp and Childress (2001) identify four fundamental moral principles autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence and justice.Autonomy infers that an individual has the right to freely decide to participate in a research study without precaution of coercion and with a full knowledge of what is being investigated. Participants gave written, informed bear and recruiting nurses were trained in consent procedures. Non- maleficence implies an intention of not vilifying and preventing harm occurring to participants both of a physical and psychological nature (Parahoo 2006). Patients who had a high probability of being harmed if they received the ultrasound where excluded from the trial, the exclusion criteria took into account contraindications. ab initio it was planned to exclude those unable to tolerate compression bandaging but after ethical consideration this was removed as these patients were identified as being particularly in need of the chance to benefit from ultrasound therapy. Beneficence is interpreted as the research benefiting the participant and society as a whole (Beauchamp and Childress, 2001). The annual cost to the NHS is estimated at ? 230-400 million (NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, 1997 Bosanquet, 1992 Baker et al. 991) some individual health authorities are spend ? 0. 9m to ? 2. 1 million (Carr et al 1999). There are psychological implications to the patient in that the ulcer increases social isolation through limited mobility, lordless exudate and odour, together with pain (Lindholm et al. 1993 Charles 1995). Justice is concerned with all participants being treated as equals and no one group of individuals receiving preferential treatment (Parahoo, 2006). There is no evidence to suggest that any of the participants were discriminated against.The following section attempts to discuss how evidence based health care enhances health care- tone at the evidence base within health care Evidence-based practice (EBP) is one of the most important developments in decades for the helping professionsincluding medicine, nursing, social work, psychology, humanity health, counselling, and all the other health and human service professions (Briggs & Rzepnicki, 2004 Brownson et al. , 2002 Dawes et al. , 1999 Dobson & Craig, 1998a, 1998b Gilgun, 2005 Roberts & Yeager, 2004 Sackett et al. ,2000).That is because evidence-based practice holds out the hope for practitioners that we can be at least as successful in helping our clients as the current available info on helping allows us to be. Evidence- based health care is the conscientious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients or the delivery of health services. Current best evidence is up-to-date information from relevant, valid research about the effects of disparate forms of health care, the potential for harm from exposure to particular agents, the accuracy of symptomatic tests, and the predictive power of prognostic factors